Law of Accounting Coursework question Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Law of Accounting Coursework question - Essay Example It is a well established principle that a contract can come into existence even if it is oral or has been concluded in an informal manner, however, it is important to note that there are certain conditions which must be satisfied for a legally binding contract to be existent. The starting point for the formation of a contract is that there must be an offer made and it should clearly not be an invitation to treat and subsequently there should be acceptance. The next aspect is that of the criterion of consideration, the intent to enter into legal relation the presence of certainty. For an effective evaluation of how a contract is to be concluded can be found in the case of Smith v Hughes1, whereby the subjective as well as the objective test was laid down so as to evaluate the existence of a valid and legally enforceable contract. The subjective test focuses on the intention of the parties who entered into the contract, while on the contrary the objective test looks into what had been said, done, not done by the parties and what the intention of saying or doing was. An important evaluation on the principles of offer and acceptance can be seen from the evaluation of Professor Atiyah, whereby it was reasoned that offer and acceptance is determined by of one of the methods which is ‘reason forwards’ and ‘reason backwards’. Reason forwards takes into account of offer and acceptance and their existence at first and then goes on to reason out and conclude on the dispute at hand and as for reason backwards the most reasonable solution is made out and it then turns around to ascertain from that offer and acceptance. The definition offer is unequivocal willingness by the offeror that is the person making offer to be bound by certain terms and conditions subject to acceptance of the offeree that is the peron to whom the offer is made. There has been a clear distinction which has been drawn by the courts on the area of invitation to treat and offer , however, there have been times when the differentiating was a mere thin line. Invitation to treat has been defined as an expression of willingness to induce another party to enter into negotiations and to make an offer, however, the boundary is, the fact that it is conditional and is therefore not an offer. The case of (Fisher v Bell)2 clearly defined the fact that invitation to treat is merely an expression of willingness of one party to enter into negotiations with another party thereby hoping that eventually offer and acceptance would take place and a valid and legally enforceable contract would come into existence. The thin line and the distinguishing features between an invitation to treat and offer can be seen from the cases of of Gibson v Manchester City Council3 and Storer v Manchester City Council4. The facts in Gibson were that the treasurer in his letter to Mr. Gibson stated that the council was willing to sell Mr. Gibson the house and needed him to make a formal applic ation. The courts looked into the circumstances of the case and in particular the price factor and held to be an invitation to treat. Contrary to Gibson, in Storer the courts held that a valid contract had been created because of the fact that the transaction had moved one step further and was prior to exchange of contracts. Even though it was a very thin line the courts distinguished between the

Charles Dickens Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Charles Dickens - Research Paper Example Dickens was a highly influential personality in the social reforms of Victorian England and his thoughts and ideas were infused with a keen sense of observation that clearly reflected the liberalism of the thirties. In all of his literary works he projected a great power over human emotions with an incomparable measure of human fun and frolic. His literary works were intended to bring about a positive change in the society and hence was centered around his experiences from his childhood, adolescence and all through his growing and maturing years. 1 During the 19th century, there were great thinkers like Karl Marx, Carlyle and Ruskin whose strongly formulated ideas laid the foundation for social reform. However, it was men such as Charles Dickens and Thomas Hardy who through their literary work shed light on the abuses of the Industrial Age in Victorian England. Through his writing Dickens enlightened the masses about the abuses of urban life, while Hardy shed light on the devastation on rural life brought about by the Industrial Age. One of Dicken’s most influential novels was ‘Hard Times’ that got published in 1854. The chief premise of this novel was about â€Å"The Preston Lockout of 1853 -54† which highlighted the great labor dispute that took place in the weaving industry. Dickens supported the workers through his writings that surprisingly did not advocate the establishing of trade unions because he felt that such unions were only a symptom of the disease and not the cure. However, in later years trade unions played a major role by improving the lot of the working class. According to (Orwell, citing Macaulay, Dickens pg.6) -‘Hard Times’ has been condemned for its â€Å"sullen Socialism†. These great Victorians denounced the evils of modern society and brought about by the Industrial Revolution and had a vision of a better future and ushered in an era of gradual social change. During the 1760’s England experienced the communal system of agriculture, where the land was divided and cultivated by the Yeomen who worked for them. These Yeomen lived in clustered cottages and pastured their cattle on common pastures. They had wooden implements which were inadequate for their work and their methods of farming 2 were very ancient. Every Yeoman’s house was his factory where all his family members took part in the work. â€Å"Every family spun from its own flock the wool with which it was clothed.† (Wordsworth Guide, p. 60) It was these influences that ushered in a ray of hope in the sky for its citizens. He keenly studied the minds and hearts of the people and knowing what they desired, he reflected his thoughts through his works. He delved deep into the recesses of the minds of the low- bred man by exalting the virtues of chastity, piety and honesty in a way that was strange to them. Charles Dickens is considered to be the conscience of Victorian England. He was quite famous for portraying and exposing the wretchedness of the poor and the downtrodden and was also well known for venting his anger against heartless oppression. It was the reason of these qualities that made him an exceedingly successful author. He was also well known for having burlesqued the Americans by making fun of their airy obscurity of Transcendentalism that is quite evident in his serialized novel titled ‘Martin Chuzzlewit.’ (1842-44) In sharp contrast to the Industrial Age, (Defoe, Tour, pp. 155-156) explains about the idyllic atmosphere that prevailed during that time.

Marks and Spencer Mission, Objectives and Responsibilities

Marks and Spencer Mission, Objectives and Responsibilities Introduction Terms of Reference. The purpose of this assignment is purely for academic reasons; this assignment has been made primarily to complete the module of Business Environment under the course HNC Business (Management) which I am studying Aims and Objective The assignment attempts to identify mission, objectives and responsibilities of an organization with its environment. It investigates the economic, social and global environment in which the organization operates. It investigates the behavior of organization and the market environment. It explores the significance of International Trade and the European dimension for the UK business. Research Methods Mark Spencer Ltd web sites articles, news, case studies. Theoretical studies from different books and Handouts from my tutor. Personal academic knowledge about Business environment Mission, Objectives and Responsibilities of Mark Spencer with its environment Developing a vision, mission and values is the foundation for the log term success, as demonstrated by Collins Porras in Built to Last. Mark and Spencer mission statement as former times and still is Good quality for the penny whereby the penny turned bazaars into stores. Mission, Values, Key objectives and influence of stakeholders Vision A vision helps working in goal congruence. It comes from within as well as outside. It accomplishes the following Give a sense of the future Guides decision making and strategy Creates a platform with same purpose Laydown behavior guidelines Inspire emotion Reflects the values Mark and Spencer vision is to be the standard against which others are measured- Benchmarking Mission A Mission statement is a statement reflecting what the organisation business is and what key purpose is there. Mark and Spencer Mission are to make inspirational quality accessible to others. Values Values are the beliefs and norms of the organisation. They underpin policies, objectives and procedures as they acts as an anchor and reference point for all the activity in the organisation. Mark and Spencer Values are Quality, Service, innovation and trust amernassargooglepages.com/MS.pdf . Key Objectives Employee orientation Higher expectations that staff can contribute more to the organization. There is a need for succession management. As such developing a career path for employees. Its part of Mark and Spencer to attract, motivate and retain high caliber workforce to assist the transformation of the business and deliver improved performance. Organizational objectives Mark and Spencer is to regain their leadership in clothing and specialty food. This is to be achieving by translating their scale and authority into superior quality, value and appeal. Sales objectives Mark and Spencer belief that there is plenty of room for improvement in their sales per foot. They saw Return per foot as a key operational objective going forward. Stakeholders influence. Employees -Interested in Job security, financial benefits, and satisfaction Pursuit of systems goals rather than shareholders interest. Suppliers -Interested in Profitable sales, Payment for goods and Long term relationship -Response to risk refusal of credit, court action and wind down relationship Government Interested in Jobs, Training and Tax. -Response to risk Tax increases, Regulation and Legal action Pressure Groups Society Interested in Pollution, Rights and other. -Response to risk Publicity, Direct action, Sabotage and Pressure on Government. Achievement of stakeholders objectives by organization If a vision and mission is recognised by all stakeholders and affects every hiring, strategic decision and communication: its effect can be magic. (function() { var scribd = document.createElement("script"); scribd.type = "text/javascript"; scribd.async = true; scribd.src = "https://www.scribd.com/javascripts/embed_code/inject.js"; var s = document.getElementsByTagName("script")[0]; s.parentNode.insertBefore(scribd, s); })() To achieve Stakeholders objective an organisation should be able to separate their interest from each other and as such act according to the power they exert in the organisation. Responsibilities of organization and effective they are in satisfying them Mark and Spencer does satisfies their stakeholders efficiently Employees They have a welfare department established in 1930. Their financial interest are safeguarded by bonuses and increases in salary upon job performance Their package of benefits are extended, such as interest free loans granted Opportunity of buying shares for the company at bonus or rights issue. Suppliers Always used UK based suppliers, ensuring consistent quality Relationship to built reliance on suppliers Life long relationship. Mutual dependability respects the specification and standard. Social commitment Strong tradition of Corporate Social Responsibility Sponsorship of Charities and secondment programs Community development efforts Government social projects. Environment friendly -Mark and Spencer became the first retailer to remove all artificial colours and flavouring from its entire food and soft drinks range- April 2008 -Mark and Spencer became the first retailer to launch school wear made from recycled plastic bottle -Despite tough economic conditions Mark and Spencer stick to Plan A. As it gives them brand and differentiation and as AL Gore said a sustainable business can be profitable one http://plana.marksandspencer.com/media/pdf/planA-2010.pdf Economic, Social and Global environment The economic problem is mainly because of unlimited wants with limited resources. It is basically how nations decide to spread or allocate their resources effectively and efficiently to maximise the production goods and services. Economic System-Allocation and Effective use of resources. To deal with the question of scarcity different countries use different approaches or types of economic system. Market Economy Private parties (Individuals or businesses) own a vast majority of land, factories and other economic resources. Centrally Planned Economy Government owns most land, factories, and other economic resources and plans nearly all economic activity. The Mixed Economy Balance between market forces and state intervention. Certain activities need to be regulated by the state while others can be left to the influence of the market. It comprises: A free enterprise- where economic decisions reflects the market forces Public ownership control of key central industries Welfare sector provide a minimum level of medical social and educational services for all citizens regardless of wealth. Impact of social welfare and industrial policy initiatives and the wider community. Benefit and Pension Mark and Spencer Once youve worked for MS for a year you are qualified for the retirement plan where you can save up to 100% of your pay in the plan and the company will match it with double contribution (limited12%). It thus provide a secure retirement and with options to transfer your investment when you On top of these benefits, MS also offer our people: SAYE Scheme to all its employees Have more holidays the longer you stay with the company The company also subsidized benefits such as health and care and dental care. Particularly in the UK, the push by retailers to meet the demands of a growing number of ethical shoppers has raised the profile of the ethical practices of businesses. Marks and Spencer, for example, is inviting shoppers to look behind the label at the sustainability of its products, as well as its labor, fair trade and animal welfare practices http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/ec333092-f937-11db-9b6b-000b5df10621.html Benefit and Pension Government Maternity allowance, Paternity allowance and adoption allowance Benefit for those who do not meet the requirements for statutory payments. Child Benefit Paid to whichever parents the child live with. Child Tax Credit Tax rebate for couple who has children Guardian allowance Tax free benefit for a child whom one is caring for but is not yours Disability Living allowance- Child who has care needs or mobility problems. Housing benefit If your total income is below threshold and you pay rent you might be qualified for housing benefit. State Pension Regular payment people claims when they get to certain age. Job seekers allowance People who are not working or working less than 16 hrs weekly can claim this benefit. http://corporate.marksandspencer.com/mscareers/rewards_benefits The government also provide Fiscal and Monetary policies for stability. Fiscal policy tools used by the government to influence level of economic activity through changing taxation or govt. spending. It can be targeted to a particular group. Fiscal policy is ineffective when investment is sensitive to interest rates and attempts to offset the actions of the government. Monetary policy- is an attempt to control macro economic variables through use of interest rates. It is very weak when consumers are holding money rather than spending them when interest rates are very low Impact of macroeconomic policy and influence of global economy on UK organizations and stakeholders. PESTEL The External Environment Political Integration of EU AND Free Trade Agreement the market has opened up for British companies opening in Europe. Technology The introduction of e-commerce. M S promoting people to buy on line with incentives likes discount. It provides flexibility 24hr Economy Retail sector very sensitive to changes in the interest rates. Environmental Marks and Spencers commitment to the environment put them at them within the top ten green brands in the UK recently * Global Warming Social Changes in consumer taste and lifestyle give rise to new market and consumers but also threats in terms of social acceptance to alcohol Legal National Health and Safety National Minimum Wage Taxation Policy Use of renewable resources. SWOT ANALYSIS Mark Spencer STRENGHTS Reputation/Brand/Goodwill Market position Quality products Detail in supplier control Internet Shopping Simon Marks understanding of customers preferences and trends WEAKNESSES Lack of newness Clothing- segmentation Lagging to provide up to date fashionable clothes Using most British suppliers believing higher quality but low cost Competitors using overseas suppliers to cut cost OPPORTUNITIES Define target age group Store a new upbeat look Respond to customer taste and purchasing power Improve CRM systems to retain existing customers and target potential new customers. To go global and expand the business Use technology to improve their functioning and thus gain competitive advantage THREATS Loss of market share of intense competition Strong competition with Next same price product but more fashionable Discount stores like Matalan Threat from Giant Tesco and Sainsbury who penetrate in the market to supply added value. (http://bizcovering.com/major-companies/a-case-study-on-marks-and-spencer/2/) Stakeholders expectations developed according to changes in the market. For instance, MS brand loyalty concept is less likely to survive where there are several substitutes of same standard in the market. As such MS has to be creative and innovative and constantly reacting to the change in the buying behaviour of the consumers. Market structures, market forces and Competition commission and regulatory bodies Market structures deviate from model of perfect competition. MS which has long been in this perfect competition, a market situation of many sellers and many buyers with similar or substitutes product. The price is determined by supply and demand and producers are to sell their products at the price determined by the market. Being in such competition the firm should have the perfect resource to produce and distribute efficiently as it faces fierce competition. MS deviated from the perfect competition to an Oligopolistic market structure, with the heavy advertising campaign for its brand name. As they are selling same product like other key players like Tesco, Asda but differentiate with its brand. It relies strongly on brand awareness and loyalty in a competitive market; differentiate itself with the quality standard with other supermarket. Relationship between market forces and organizational responses. Porters Five Forces The Industry The five forces model provides a summary of the threats within the immediate industry. Suppliers Low in this Industry Dual Sourcing Strategies Rivalry Low Competitive In this Industry Bargaining Power Buyers Aggressive Pricing Strategy Substitute Premium Branded Food Sainsbury John Lewis New Entrants Low Price Low cost BHS/ASDA Porters Five Forces Behavior and competitive strategies, Competition commission and regulatory bodies. The consumers buying behaviour trends is reflected by an ageing population and the high number of women in the workforce. The increase in disposable income and the lifestyle changes recent years. The revolution of home internet users online shopping which call for multi-cultural marketing. (Deloitte:2005 Global powers of Retailing report).In the recent years because of fierce competition MS market share suffered a blow mainly their clothing segment. Unlike when you consider MS Competitor, Tescos strategies to penetrate the UK market. Tesco operated on the pile it High sell it Cheap formula the early 70s and thereafter launches the operation check out which cut prices across their product and differentiate themselves from their competitors. Then Tesco diversified there channel of distribution with Stores like Tesco extra, Tesco metro and as well as beginning to open petrol stations. The Competition Commission has asked the Government to impose an ombudsman on the grocery industry to rule on disputes between supermarkets and their suppliers. The request comes after it failed to agree a voluntary arrangement with major retailers Only Marks Spencer, Waitrose and Aldi backed the plan. The takeover of MS store card business of  £763m by HSBC has given the Office of Fair Trading to launch a competition investigation into the matter. Richard Fletcher, Executive Editor, Business Published: 8:20PM BST 04 Aug 2009 TELEGRAPH .CO.UK The Office of Fair Trading has launched a formal competition investigation into HSBCs  £763m takeover of Marks Spencers store-card business. The firm Freshfield might be under investigation for its work advising Philip Green for abortion bid for MS and the investigation will be carried out by the Law Society, which regulates the Britishs legal profession. International Trade and the European Dimension Importance of international trade, economic integration and global markets to UK business International trade is doing business across national borders and is the backbone of our modern computerized business world. These occurs mainly because of lower production costs in one region versus another, specialized industries, lack of surplus of natural resources and consumer tastes. Globalization is a process driven by international trade and investment. It is the trend towards greater economic, cultural, political and technological interdependence among national institutions and economies. The benefits of globalization are as follows: Reduces marketing costs New market opportunities Balance in level in income Access to low cost labor Access to technical expertise Access to production inputs. The main drivers for Globalization are: GATT WTO Regional Trade Agreements Technological Innovation As MS is growing global and international competition has presented new challenges. The company stress its global sourcing principles amongst its selected suppliers and further down the supply chain which sets a minimum acceptable entry standard. MS want their suppliers to raise their standard as well to reflect the internationally recognized standard thus differentiating them and enjoying the competitive edge. Impact of two policies of the European Union on the UK business organizations The Agricultural Policy has always been a tension between members state. The banned of the import of beef from the US by the EU. The EU responded illegally according to the WTO with a refusal to comply. The US retaliated by levying an import tax of $ 117 m on imports of food from the EU. (Source Undersatnding European Union 3rd edition Anforme 2002.) Such transactions would impact the UK US relationship, it would adversely affect the UK economy. Last year only one Banking company crash in the US and the effect is still felt and now one can imagine if the US starts implementing quotas, barriers and levying tax on imports from the UK. The EU directives affect the UK businesses; even the different bodies of the EU are not always unanimous about the directives set. For instance, Advocate General Leendert Geelhoed from the ECJ said that EU health foods directive infringe guidelines in his opinion. In the case brought forward by the industry groups the British Health Food Manufacture Association, National Association of Health Stores(NAHS) and Alliance for Natural Health(ANH) ahead of the ECJ. (Source :http//news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/441192- 13/04/05) The Economic implication for the UK of entry into EMU. The EMU was masterminded by Jacques Delores which is mainly single currency. The EMU is seen as a logical extension of the single market and as a way of making EU more competitive and powerful in the world market. The EURO ZONE consisting Lower cost for management of money Faster transactions across borders Elimination of exchange rate fluctuations. Market Transparency The impacts of EMU on UK economy are huge, since the major partners of the UK are members of the EMU. The Euro relative weaknesses against the pound and UK export to Europe more expensive and thus make it more difficult for UK businesses to sell their products. On the other side domestic consumers will buy imported rather than domestic goods. Government subjected the Five Economic tests before considering membership. Euro Zone economic structure compatible to UK Is the UK labor market flexible to meet the requirements of such development The effect of the Euro Zone on the financial investment in the UK. The effect of the single currency on the competitive position of the City of London. Will the EMU be able to promote such growth, stability and employment that the UK has accomplished by its own. 6.0 Conclusion and Recommendations MS has been a leading retailer in the UK, but went through a phase by 1988 which pushed the firm into crisis. By 2006 MS reposition themselves in the market but could not enjoy the iconic brand it once was. They were to face the UKS largest and most profitable retailer in 2006 TESCO. MS respond tot the challenge with a drastic changes in management structure. They have to achieve the right balance between the corporate values, strong market position and the innovation to stay competitive. They need to use their strength Brand and product quality to be enabled to sustain profitability and to be less vulnerable to changes in the market condition. MS is in a very highly competitive and sophisticated industry, as such the need to be aware of the fashion trends, customer increasing expectations and changing tastes are more than ever one of the most important factor for them to consider. The lowering of international barriers has encourage a vast choices of product available to customer

Modest Proposal :: essays research papers

Swift’s Argument   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many different ways to write an argumentative paper. An argumentative paper is a paper designed to push a reader toward an idea or feeling an author evokes (Skywire 332). An author will try to make ludicrous ideas seem more appealing to the reader. â€Å"A Modest Proposal† is a great example of this technique.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Johnathan Swift, an Irish clergyman, wrote an argumentative paper to mock the English. Swift’s paper was an eating Irish babies. This would sound like a ludicrous idea, but Swift makes it seem like it would help the economy. He uses many of the basic argumentative techniques to support this idea.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This most obvious technique used by Swift was card stacking. He only talked about his side of the situation (Skywire 336). He made a baby seem like it would become a highly demanded dish. People around the world would pay dearly for it and the money would help Ireland’s economy (Swift 363-4). He never talked about the parent’s side. He hid how they would feel pain and heartache of a lost child. He keeps the reader’s mind thinking about the positive aspects, and never even touches on the negative ones. He even introduced slanting into his text.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Slanting is a writing technique that shows great approval or disapproval about a subject (Skywire 336). He made it seem that he loved the idea of eating a baby. It would be the new delicacy on all menus (Swift 364-5). With this opinion on the great demand for human flesh, he used a hasty generalization.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Swift made a hasty generalization by basing his knowledge that everyone would love human flesh on an incident on the island of Formosa (Swift 365). Swift learned through a native of Formosa that when a child was put to death, his body was sold as a â€Å"Prime dainty† (Swift 365-6). He said how even the prime minister of the state had bought a girl put to death because of treason (Swift 365-6). So he deducts that since they like it then the whole world will.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Swift built the readers up by using numbers and showing how kids are a pain and just get in the way (Swift 364-5). He even went as far as to say that the kids he proposes to eat are children of beggars that can’t afford them anyway (Swift 364-5). Modest Proposal :: essays research papers Swift’s Argument   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many different ways to write an argumentative paper. An argumentative paper is a paper designed to push a reader toward an idea or feeling an author evokes (Skywire 332). An author will try to make ludicrous ideas seem more appealing to the reader. â€Å"A Modest Proposal† is a great example of this technique.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Johnathan Swift, an Irish clergyman, wrote an argumentative paper to mock the English. Swift’s paper was an eating Irish babies. This would sound like a ludicrous idea, but Swift makes it seem like it would help the economy. He uses many of the basic argumentative techniques to support this idea.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This most obvious technique used by Swift was card stacking. He only talked about his side of the situation (Skywire 336). He made a baby seem like it would become a highly demanded dish. People around the world would pay dearly for it and the money would help Ireland’s economy (Swift 363-4). He never talked about the parent’s side. He hid how they would feel pain and heartache of a lost child. He keeps the reader’s mind thinking about the positive aspects, and never even touches on the negative ones. He even introduced slanting into his text.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Slanting is a writing technique that shows great approval or disapproval about a subject (Skywire 336). He made it seem that he loved the idea of eating a baby. It would be the new delicacy on all menus (Swift 364-5). With this opinion on the great demand for human flesh, he used a hasty generalization.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Swift made a hasty generalization by basing his knowledge that everyone would love human flesh on an incident on the island of Formosa (Swift 365). Swift learned through a native of Formosa that when a child was put to death, his body was sold as a â€Å"Prime dainty† (Swift 365-6). He said how even the prime minister of the state had bought a girl put to death because of treason (Swift 365-6). So he deducts that since they like it then the whole world will.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Swift built the readers up by using numbers and showing how kids are a pain and just get in the way (Swift 364-5). He even went as far as to say that the kids he proposes to eat are children of beggars that can’t afford them anyway (Swift 364-5).

Hinduism Paper Essay

Hinduism as coined by European influence, is the world’s third largest religion with nearly one billion followers, about 14% of the Earths human population. There are many that theorize Hinduism is not like any other religion that encompasses a particular way of life; that Hinduism is without a defined founder, deity, nor is Hinduism stuck to a specific system of theology. However, there are those that argue Hinduism is monotheistic because it does recognize the one supreme being of Brahman. Then some view Hinduism as Trinitarian because Brahman is visualized as one God with the three persons of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. Considering that Hinduism lacks a united belief system is a matter of scholarly theory based on the closest findings and perhaps the reason many people theorize that Hinduism is undefined religion. The makeup of Hinduism is of diverse beliefs and traditions of the 81% of Hindus residing in present day India translated from Vedic scripture that some scholars say date back to 10,000 BCE. The basic scriptures of Hinduism, referred as Shastras, are a collection of spiritual laws discovered by sages at different points in history. The Two types of sacred writings, Shruti (heard) and Smriti (memorized) comprise the Hindu scriptures. The sacred writings were passed on from generation to generation orally for centuries before they were written down in the Sanskrit language dating far back as 6,500 BC. The major and most popular Hindu texts include the Bhagavad Gita, the Upanishads, and the epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata, but there are fundamental core of beliefs shared by all Hindus. The basic core of Hinduism believes that there is only one supreme Absolute called Brahman, although it does not advocate the worship of any one particular deity. The gods and goddesses of Hinduism can amount to millions, all representing the many aspects of Brahman that indicate Hinduism is characterized by multiple deities. The most fundamental of Hindu deities is the Trinity of Brahma (creator), Vishnu (or Krishna, meaning creator) and Shiva (destroyer). Yet, the supreme God of any sub-God or sub-Goddesses is that of Brahma, a monotheistic approach that can be compared with many carnations to God in the Christian Bible such as Moses, Abraham, and Jesus and perhaps ignites much debate on the type of religion Hinduism is. However, there are other basic cores of beliefs that Hindus share. Amongst the core beliefs shared by Hindus is the desire for liberation from earthly existence in which Dharma, Samsara, Karma, and Moksha are facets in reaching liberation. Dharma encompasses ethics and duty within a Hindu’s life. Karma is the actions with in one’s life and the consequences for those actions. When Karma goes unfulfilled, Samsara is experienced through the cycle of life, death, and rebirth. The rebirth cycle is also known as reincarnation where a Hindu’s uncleansed soul cycles through life after life until the soul is cleansed enough to be with Brahman. While stuck in Samsara, the individual then becomes limited within time and space where monotony becomes a desire for escape from such misery. When a Hindu’s soul is cleansed enough to satisfy Brahman, Moksha is that escape from such earthly miseries. The desire for Moksha transformed Hinduism from a religion into a culture, but there is debate as to the cultural and societal influences that have made Hinduism vital to India. The cultural and societal influences of Hinduism is in a state of constant flow with the never ending possibilities as life on the earthly plane continues to flourish, yet there is debate on the historical significance that makes a Hinduism what it is today. The Aryan theory argues that Hinduism traces back to the Indus valley civilization of 4,000-2,200 BCE and was influenced by many Aryan Indo-European tribes who brought with them the religion of Vedism around 1,500 BCE. The Emerge theory challenges the Aryan invasion theory in stating the inconsistencies in timelines of Hebrew Scriptures and that of the Aryan invasion in comparison to the development of the four Veda that can be traced as far back as 6,500 BCE. Archeologists and religious historian have concluded through physical evidence of archeological finds along the Indus River and Indus valley show a continuality of the same group of people who traditionally developed Indian culture generation after generation with no evidence of Aryan influence. Another debate that continues amongst the modern day quarrel over theory is the caste system that dates back to 500 BCE. The Rig Veda defined four castes, or Varna’s; Brahmins were for religious leaders and educators, Kshatriyas for rulers and military, Vaishyas for farmers, landlords, and merchants, and Shudra for peasants, servants and workers. A fifth Varna was known as untouchables and anyone castigated from the Varna’s were the Dalit who were denigrated to pollutant jobs. According to Religioustolerance. org (2011), â€Å"although the caste system was abolished in 1949, it remains a significant force amongst Hindus throughout India. Aside from debate are the cultural rituals of the Hindu. According Living Religions by Mary Pat Fisher (2005), â€Å"there are sixteen rites prescribed in the ancient scriptures to purify and sanctify the person in his or her journey through life, including rites at the time of conception, the braiding of the pregnant mother’s hair, birth, name-giving, beginning of solid foods, starting education, investing boys with a sacred thread, first leaving the family house, starting studies of Vedas, marriage, and death. Sanatana Dharma is the current preferred title of what is better known as Hinduism where respect of one of the world’s oldest religions must be observed. The fact that there are many worshipped idols within Sanatana Dharma confuses the masses who contend that Hinduism is a polytheistic religion. Yet, it is the world overlooking the fact that other religions practice in denominations sectored by a difference of beliefs within the same core of beliefs.

The Return: Shadow Souls Chapter 23

That â€Å"night† they moved in, choosing the hour while the other estates they passed were darkened and quiet. Elena, Meredith, and Bonnie each picked a room on the upper floor as a bedroom, all close together. Nearby was a luxurious bathing room, with a pale blue and white marble floor and a unique pool shaped like a giant rose, fully large enough to swim in, heated by charcoal, with a cheerful-looking servant to tend it. Elena was delighted with what happened next. Damon bought a number of slaves quietly, in a private sale from a respectable dealer, and then promptly freed them all and offered them wages and time off. Almost all the former slaves were only too happy to agree to stay, and only a few chose to leave or ran away, mostly women in search of their families. The others would remain and become Lady Ulma's staff once Damon, Elena, Bonnie, and Meredith left after freeing Stefan. Lady Ulma, was given a â€Å"senior† room downstairs, although Damon almost had to use brute force to install her in it. He himself chose a room that was an office by day, since he wasn't likely to spend much of the night in the house anyway. There was a slight embarrassment over that. Most of the staff knew of the ways of vampire masters, and the young girls and women who came to sew or who lived on the estate and cooked and cleaned seemed to expect some sort of rota to be worked out, with each of them taking turns at being donors. Damon explained this to Elena, who quashed the idea before it could be implemented. She could tell that Damon was hoping for a steady stream of girls, ranging from flowerlike to red-cheeked and buxom, who would be glad to be â€Å"tapped† like beer kegs for the pretty bangles and baubles that were traditionally given. Elena similarly disposed of the idea of hunting for hire. Sage had mentioned that there were even rumors of a possible Outside connection: a very advanced training course for Navy SEALs. â€Å"And they can come out the world's only vampire seals,† Elena had said sardonically, in front of a group of male slaves this time. â€Å"They can go out and bite sharks. Certainly you guys can go out and hunt some humans like a pair of owls hunting mice – just don't bother to come home afterward, because the doors will be locked†¦permanently.† She held Sage's gaze until her expression became a steely glare and he'd hastened off to do something else around the estate. Elena didn't mind Sage's informal moving in with them. And after hearing how Sage had saved Damon from the mob that ambushed him on the way to the Meeting Place, she had determined in her own mind that if Sage ever wanted her blood, she would give it to him unhesitatingly. After a few days, when he had stayed around the house near Dr. Meggar's and then moved with them into Lady Ulma's compound, she had wondered if her diminished aura and Damon's reticence weren't depriving him of something he should know about. So she'd thrown broader and broader hints at him, until once when he had doubled over, and then, with tears of laughter (but had it only been laughter?) in his eyes, had come over to her and said that the Americans had a saying, no? You can lead a horse to water, but you cannot make it drink. In his case, he said, you could lead a snarling black panther – her normal mental iconic image of Damon – to water, if you had electric cattle prods and elephant ankusha, bu t that afterward you'd be a fool to turn your back on it. Elena had laughed until she, too, cried, but had still pledged that if he wanted her blood, a reasonable share was his. Now she simply felt glad to have him around. Her heart was too full already, with Stefan, Damon – and even Matt, despite his apparent desertion – for her to be in danger of falling for another vampire, no matter how terminally fit they were. She appreciated Sage as a friend and protector. Elena was surprised at how much she came to rely on Lakshmi as each day passed. Lakshmi had begun as a sort of gopher, doing the running around that no one else wanted to, but more and more, she had become Lady Ulma's maid-in-waiting and Elena's source of information about this world. Lady Ulma was still officially bedridden, and having Lakshmi ready at any time of the day or night, to send messages, was wonderfully convenient. Too, she was someone that Elena could ask questions of that otherwise would get her eyed as if she were crazy. Did they need to buy plates or was food served on a large hunk of dried bread, which acted as a napkin for greasy fingers as well? (Plates had been recently introduced, along with forks, which were all the rage now.) How much were the men and woman of the household entitled to in wages (which had to be calculated from scratch, since no other household paid its slaves a geld, merely clothing them from a community uniform cache, and allowing them one or two â€Å"feast days† a year)? Young as she was, Lakshmi was both honest and bold and Elena was grooming her to become Lady Ulma's right hand, after Lady Ulma had become well enough to be the lady of the house.

the wars essay hero Essay Example

the wars essay hero Essay Example the wars essay hero Essay the wars essay hero Essay himself in danger for the better of Levitt and Poole and showed himself as a loyal, heroic leader. see he is commander, doesnt panic and controls the convoy. quick thinking (witted) tells Poole to use bugle. Robert got off of his horse and struck out onto the fog alone, and commanded Levitt and Poole to stay back until he found the break in the dike. he dangerously put himself at risk; doing what others wont never give up on any difficult situations. C. Point two 1. The second part of the definition of the term. 2. Craters (p. 23- 125) Highlighted his position as commander when ordering them what to do (Get out handkerchiefs and urinate on them). Displays anger and frustration at others unable to do so, due to fear. The concept he learned in chemistry class makes him a hero, as it saved his comrades from being fatally injured by the chlorine gas. ommands everyone to Jump into the crater filled with water and corpses, Soldiers fght for the gas mask and Robert pulls his gun on them, At gun point, Robert orders the soldiers to take out their handkerchiefs, He sacrifices his ask for the man with the two broken legs, Robert mandates the men to urinate on their cloths; he helps one man do so, Robert tells the soldiers to bury their faces in the cloths and put their faces down into the clay. Its the first time Robert sacrifices his mask without knowing if the wetted cloths would work. Strengthens his development to become a leader an d forces quick thinking. shows how Robert Ross progresses as a hero and demonstrates the responsibilities and pressures the war puts on an individual as is can make them think irrationally. It also shows how eamwork is the most valuable tactic in surviving battle. It gives a more visual outlook to the reality Robert experiences in the war as he expresses fear and quick thinking. trust as it demonstrates how trust in yourself, others and methods of survival is critical to moving forward in battle. The fear shown by characters is what forces trust and cooperation with others. All right, he said, you sons-of-bitches do exactly what I say. One of the men began to run. Robert fired. The man fell down but was not hit, Robert having missed him on purpose. Now, he said. If you want to live you have about twenty seconds. Get out your handkerchiefs. (Findley 139). This quote emphasizes the fear and how during war you need to be quick on your feet and always fearful for what is to come. Fo r a moment they ceased to be soldiers and became eight panic-stricken men who were trapped in the bottom of a sink hole, either about to be drowned or smother to death with gas. Eight men and one mask. Robert had to fght to keep it and he ended up kicking both the living and the dead (Findley 138). This quote emphasizes, that although they are regular men fighting and being strong for their country, they still feel fear and are willing to sabotage other soldiers lives to save their own. But the poor daft crazy was so afraid and so confused that he put the cloth on top of his head (Findley 140). This quote emphasizes how war causes people to lose their sense of rationality and act upon situations in an unusual way because of the extreme pressure to survive. Robert Ross and his fellow soldiers lives are put on the line when they are fac hlorine gas, and as a result they develop trust, cooperation and irrationality. D. Point three 1 . The third part of the definition (if there is one) ed with 2. Shooting Captain Leather to save horses (p. 183- 184)- Bravery shown, Im going to break ranks Leather is insane. Kept running even when barn was burning, Just keep goi ng. If an animal had done this, then shoots Leather as getting up to his feet. Heroic as some would be afraid of their Captains, rather than doing what may be right. Leaders do the right things, managers do things right). Isnt afraid of consequences and ready to step outside of comfort zone Devlin also expressed fears of being reprimanded by Leather, before finally concurring. It cannot be called disobedience to save these animals when theyll be needed, for Gods sake, half-an-hour after this is over. And if we stay here, how can they avoid being killed? (Findley,202) Captain Leather was about to shoot Robert because he did not want him to free up the horses. He was waving the gun in the air and trying to get hrough the circle of horses and mules so that he could draw a bead on Robert. (Findley, 202) The shells eventually killed all the horses and mules. Robert was very enraged. He thinks that it was all Captain Leathers fault so he killed him. He paused for the barest moment looking at the whole scene laid out before him and his anger rose to such a pitch that he feared he was going to go over into madness Leather rose to his knees and began to struggle to his feet. Robert shot him between the eyes. (Findley, 203)

Reactivity essays

Reactivity essays Reactivity is classified as ready susceptibility to chemical change. Reactivity occurs when a metal acts in response with a substance to produce an outcome. The process of reactivity takes place to enable the atom to form a stable outer energy level. Metal atoms with outer electrons of 2 or 3 are less reactive than metal atoms of 1 outer electron with the same energy level. The reason for this fact is the more outer electrons an atom has, the more protons it contains, thus the atom has a more powerful nuclear attraction. Below is a common order of reactivity of metals: In this series of reactivity the most active metal is potassium (K) and the least active metal is silver (Ag) A displacement reaction is defined as a chemical reaction in which an elementary substance displaces and sets free a constituent element. A more active metal will displace a less active metal from a compound. A displacement reaction happens in the following way: Active Metal + Solution containing metal ions Metal + Solution containing A + B C A C + B Magnesium + Zinc Sulfate Zinc + Magnesium Sulfate A displacement reaction is demonstrated when there is a change in the colour of the solution, a black coating on the metal is evident or crystals assemble on the surface of the metal. Also if there is a pinkish layer on the metal (this only occurs in the case of copper) or if heat is created. ...

Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood-Free-Samples for Students

Emerging adulthood has been reckoned as a phase in an individual’s life spanning from age 18 to 25 years that falls within the period encompassing late adolescence and early adulthood.   It has been designated as the age of identity exploration characterized by vital attributes such as instability, self-focus, sense of plethora of possibilities for the future alongside feeling in between adolescence and adulthood. This proposed distinctive stage has been found to vary significantly between developed and developing nations (Arnett, 2014). The normative social in addition to the psychological conditions are depicted by virtue of this stage that may be further equated and corroborated with the Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development which aims to emphasize on personality build up from childhood to adulthood through consideration of the external factors, society and parents (Syed, 2015). As per Erikson’s theory, a person’s life cycle is divisible into e ight interrelated stages that a person must pass through during his or her lifetime. The age group for emerging adulthood may be related to the young adulthood phase as described by Erikson. In this age group of young adulthood, people tend to seek companionship and love whereby psychological strengths rest on these virtues primarily. A crisis for intimacy over isolation often engulfs this vulnerable group. They are on the lookout for satisfying relationships and deep intimacy at this phase and in case of non-conformance to such ambitions, isolation might occur. Associations and bonding tend to be stronger with the marital partner and friends through nurturing (Dunkel & Harbke, 2017). Thus, it may be said that emerging adulthood and Erikson’s stage of young adult is essentially interrelated. Arnett, J. J. (2014).  Adolescence and emerging adulthood. Boston, MA: Pearson. Dunkel, C. S., & Harbke, C. (2017). A review of measures of Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development: Evidence for a general factor.  Journal of Adult Development,  24(1), 58-76. Syed, M. (2015). Emerging adulthood: Developmental stage, theory, or nonsense.  The Oxford handbook of emerging adulthood, 11-25.

McCabe on Faith and Reason Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

McCabe on Faith and Reason - Essay Example Indeed, Christianity or Islam operate with rather complex notions and require their followers to have a strong faith. In this paper I will argue that Herbert McCabe fails to draw a good connection between faith and reason because his arguments are too ambiguous. This represents the major drawback of his position when it comes to explaining what role the latter plays in the former. In order to demonstrate this, I will first explore his position on the connection between faith and reason; then pay attention to the merits of it and, afterwards, put emphasis on the deficiencies that can be found in it. To begin with, it may be particularly important to outline the view of McCabe on the way faith and reason are connected. He points out that there are two extreme positions when it comes to faith: on the one hand, some might argue that to practice it one should not have any reasons at all which means that faith is above any reasoning; on the other hand, others are firm in that their faith can hardly be disproved logically. The scholar notes that true understanding of faith lies somewhere in between as â€Å"the first extreme makes the notion of truth inapplicable. The other makes the notion of faith inapplicable† (McCabe 5). In addition McCabe notes that people who dismiss the importance of the relationship between faith and reasons fail to â€Å"take sufficiently seriously the point that faith means holding something as true – they think of faith as more an act of courage or trust in a very general sense† (McCabe 6). So, he proves that it is essential to make th is relationship clear. There are several merits of such an approach. First of all, McCabe shows that faith should not be perceived as some kind of a metaphysical knowledge that is beyond common sense and is incompatible with logic. Quite the opposite, he draws several examples, as in the case of marrying for money, which show that faith is a rather difficult complex and any

Banned Condom Ads Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Banned Condom Ads - Coursework Example Though this advert is obviously humorous, the interested parties banned it from the television for the obvious, serious message it is passing across (ZaZoo condoms). The message the commercial seems to be wear condoms to prevent these kinds of tantrums. The message also seems to be advising parents to wear condoms if they do not want these kinds of kids (Allyn & Westheimer, & Lopater, 2002). It is likely that the commercial was banned for this message. Instead of the ad passing the right message, for example, condoms are ways of preventing unnecessary pregnancies and STDs, the commercial seems to be threatening customers to buy their products or end up like this frustrated parent (Banned commercials). The other commercial in question is the one by Durex, which has a mass of sperms following their owner as he goes to talk to his girl. Her boyfriend’s sperms, which have been personified, rush the girl and a giant condom later rescues her (Banned commercials- Durex). The message the commercial seems to be passing is that the Durex condom can eat up sperm/ men and prevent pregnancy (Miracle, Miracle & Baumeister, 2003). The commercial is obviously funny and does not use explicit message or pictures, and that is the reason that leads one to wonder why it was banned. It is possible that the commercial was banned for its utilization of man/ sperm eating condom, and the utilization of man- looking sperm (Andersen,

The role of the rule of law in the criminal justice process in UK Essay

The role of the rule of law in the criminal justice process in UK - Essay Example In the British Criminal Justice System, divisions like the Crown Prosecution Sector, the police, the law courts and the prisons operate together to bring about criminal justice. In general, the three departments are mutually responsible for the Criminal Justice System (CJS) and its subdivisions. These three consist of (i) The Ministry of Justice, which is concerned with the magistrates' law courts, the Appeals Courts, the Crown Court, the National Offender Management Service, and the Legal Services Commission (ii) The Home Office under whose jurisdiction are the police (iii) The Attorney General's Office which is in charge of the Serious Fraud Department, the Crown Prosecution Service, and the Customs and Revenue Prosecutions Division In ordinary circumstances, it is the responsibility of the Ministry of Justice to oversee the entire justice procedure (Roberson, Wallace and Stuckey, 2009). It is responsible for justice being meted out from the time when a suspect is apprehended, to t he time they are charged with a crime and incarcerated (if this is the result) (Schmalleger, 2009). The Ministry of Justice also plays a role in a felon’s probation process. The ministry is also expected to provide legal aid, and seek to decrease the chances of re-offending. The Home Office, on the other hand, is responsible for safeguarding the public from instances of crime, terror and other anti-social behaviours. The home office ensures people’s safety in order to facilitate investment and peaceful coexistence. It also promotes the acceptable level of tolerance that allows people to live with others from different backgrounds without there being unnecessary problems that come about through misunderstandings. This division is responsible for counter terrorism initiatives, safe policing and overall crime reduction strategies.  The Attorney General, who is usually assisted in handling these responsibilities by the Solicitor General, is the key legal counsel to the B ritish Government (McLeod, 2010). Both the Solicitor General and the Attorney General are responsible for making sure that all citizens uphold the rule of law.   The Attorney General also has additional public interest responsibilities such as committing to objecting to extremely lenient sentences that are given to serious criminals, as well as initiating proceedings in courts concerning the Contempt of Court Act (Zander, 2007). The function of the Criminal Justice System (CJS) is to bring all to justice by convicting and imprisoning the felons while defending the public. It is also in charge of investigating crimes and making sure that the perpetrators are held accountable for their crimes (Packer, 1968). The CJS also carries out other functions such as executing court orders, collecting fines and overseeing custodial as well as community punishment.   The main objectives for the CJS are:   Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To enhance their efficiency in bringing crimes and their p erpetrators to justice.   Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To boost public confidence in the way the CJS conducts its operations   Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To make crime victims feel that their grievances have been satisfactorily addressed by the Police unit as well as the CJS.   Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To constantly gather, evaluate, and make use of statistics concerning different ethnicities so as to identify irregularities in the distribution of responsibilities in the CJS.   Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To increase the finding of criminal factors so that the public is made aware that criminals will not go unpunished (Sanders and Young, 2000). While not all the members of society are predisposed to crime, such a step will help in discouraging potential criminals. The Basic Concept Underlying the Rule of Law In the 19th and 18th British society, many individuals who belonged to the upper classes were not treated in the same way as the rest of the British citizens. If they committed any crimes, they had special government laws that would be used to judge their cases

The Woman in the Dunes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Woman in the Dunes - Essay Example Further examples are shown when he tries to escape the dunes, but failing to do so, gets to work and starts finding useful things to do, ultimately coming up with a ‘technology’ to get water from the dunes around him. These various examples all point towards the same human truth. Is that truth the adaptability of humans, or is it the helplessness of humans, which once resigned to is rewarded by fate? Ultimately, human beings are helpless creatures. While they have a certain amount of free will and control over their lives, they are in all actuality confined to live within a certain prescribed realm, and only able to excise free will within those conformities. No action can be made out of that predefined real, and any action made even within it is subject to many levels of unpredictability, leaving their resulting conclusion out of our hands. So what free will can a human being excise, knowing what he intends is exactly what will happen? Only the free will of emotions, fe elings and thought is in the control of a human being and that is what The Woman in the Dunes shows time and again. Jumpei could control none of the situations he was put in, but time and again, he decided to make the best of his situation and ended up for the better of it. When he is cast into the sand dune with the young widow he is initially hostile and tries to hold the woman captive, but ultimately resigning himself to his fate, he builds a life for himself and ends up falling in love with the very same woman. Later on, when he tries and fails to escape, he loses the idea of leaving his situation and instead focuses on accepting and making the best of his surroundings, so much so that he ultimately fails to even leave. Of these feelings, the choice we most often have to make is that of acceptance. Acceptance is a two faced coin, one showing the face of happiness and comfort, the other showing a malicious and conniving smile. By accepting the situations life puts us in we make o ur lives more acceptable and manage to extract from them virtues and benefits that contribute towards our well being, but at the same time, we experience the crushing blow of defeat by understanding that we have yet again been dealt an unfavorable hand and then made to smile about it – worse yet, made to do it willingly, of our own accord, but in exact accordance to what we were so against. It is a two faced paradox of irony and it is what a human being battles every day of his life, that is, whether to accept defeat and settle down in happiness, or to fight on and suffer every minute for it. It is a battle that every human being has to fight, whether it was the widow in the movie, whether it was Jumpei, or whether it will ultimately be the villagers, who seem to have lived life out of the way of harm and unhappiness. Hence it can be said that to fight an unchangeable factor is only going to bring unrest and disturbance. Just like beating a brick wall is going to do no more t han tire the beater, fighting against the situations we are put into will only result in discomfort and restlessness. It matters not who thrust who into the situation or whose fault it is.

The Health Benefits of Transcendental Meditation Essay

The Health Benefits of Transcendental Meditation - Essay Example Because of its association with yoga and other Eastern philosophic belief systems and, later, with the New Age movements of alternative religious practices, meditation has often been dismissed in the West as something less than real. â€Å"Until recently the very word meditation tended to evoke raised eyebrows and thoughts about mysticism and hocus-pocus in many people. In part, that was because people did not understand that meditation is really about paying attention† (Kabat-Zin, 1990: 21). In particular, it is about paying attention to the moment as it is passing. This moves beyond the concept of living in the moment to being intimately aware of the moment even as it passes and becomes nothing more than memory. This transcendental explanation is easier defined than accomplished. The tendency of the mind is to take the opportunity of the ‘autopilot’ initiative to reflect upon the past or to make plans for the future. For those caught in desperate situations, thi s can lead to a destructive cycle of thinking that leaves little room for improvement while allowing them to miss out on the joys or triumphs of the present. One way in which people can help themselves break this cycle is through the process of meditation, which, it turns out, brings about some significant benefits including the benefit of clearer thinking, more enjoyed moments and an inner peace. It also offers numerous measurable physical benefits including reduced blood pressure, reduced stress, more restful sleep and lowered cholesterol. While there are many different forms of meditation, several of which require lengthy study, practice and training to accomplish, transcendental meditation was designed to be accessible to the layperson with a minimum of training for nearly instant benefit. Transcendental meditation can have numerous physical benefits as the result of the deep breathing and relaxation exercises that paradoxically bring

Legal System Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Legal System - Essay Example The lack of education or literacy rate in a country could lead it to the high crime rate among young people that provides incentives for committing crimes due to instable economical situation. With the provision of education in the people the rule of law may be strengthen. The primary and secondary educations are very important in this regard; they work as a base for the future education of an individual. We should strengthen the legal system and provide education to the people for strengthening the society. To provide a crackdown on the crimes and to eliminate unhealthy tendencies in the society we should understand the importance of law and the matters falling in the purview of the law should be left to the judicial institutions. It is not legal for an individual to directly concern himself with such matters. One should be careful about inner discipline. Legal problems should be left on the shoulders of the state and the government to decide. If an individual intervenes in everything than it would be very difficult for the people to understand the importance and integrity of the law. Violations of laws disturb the society, self-personality, family and friends. Everyone in the society should make efforts to strengthen the law at large extent as it provides security, mental satisfaction and causes progress for the country. There should be no tendencies of ignoring or violating the laws in the country. Indispensable legal systems should be implemented in the country. By the passing of time, the law has been divided into different subjects and topics; the reason was to make it easily understandable in terms of different aspects of the law. The law is also being taught in different topics and subjects. Even cases are decided on different grounds. To make the process easy, different courts have been established that deal with different kinds of cases in their purview. Following are the different topics of the law: Legal Kinds of Law: Criminal Law. Contact Law. Tort Law (Breach) Property law Trust and Equity Law. Administrative law. International Law. Legal Systems Civil Law. Common Law. Religious Law. Institutions of Law Judiciary Legislature. Executive. Military and Police. Bureaucracy. Civil Society. Legal Profession. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law) Law as Legal Subject Almost in every country, the law is taught in different subjects/topics, like in England, the knowledge of law is provided in almost seven different subjects. All laws have the same approach and legal system and same issues around the world, although different names are used to elaborate laws. For example, in the Civil law contract and the breach of contract would fall under the purview of law of obligations and trusts and will be processed under legal regimes or under the international conventions and agreements. Outside of the Europe international laws are being dealt under different agreements other than European laws like North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), South Asia Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA), South American Community of Nations (CSN), Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) and other different trade and other agreements to settle the dispute. But it is worth mentioning that there is

The Health Benefits of Transcendental Meditation Essay

The Health Benefits of Transcendental Meditation - Essay Example Because of its association with yoga and other Eastern philosophic belief systems and, later, with the New Age movements of alternative religious practices, meditation has often been dismissed in the West as something less than real. â€Å"Until recently the very word meditation tended to evoke raised eyebrows and thoughts about mysticism and hocus-pocus in many people. In part, that was because people did not understand that meditation is really about paying attention† (Kabat-Zin, 1990: 21). In particular, it is about paying attention to the moment as it is passing. This moves beyond the concept of living in the moment to being intimately aware of the moment even as it passes and becomes nothing more than memory. This transcendental explanation is easier defined than accomplished. The tendency of the mind is to take the opportunity of the ‘autopilot’ initiative to reflect upon the past or to make plans for the future. For those caught in desperate situations, thi s can lead to a destructive cycle of thinking that leaves little room for improvement while allowing them to miss out on the joys or triumphs of the present. One way in which people can help themselves break this cycle is through the process of meditation, which, it turns out, brings about some significant benefits including the benefit of clearer thinking, more enjoyed moments and an inner peace. It also offers numerous measurable physical benefits including reduced blood pressure, reduced stress, more restful sleep and lowered cholesterol. While there are many different forms of meditation, several of which require lengthy study, practice and training to accomplish, transcendental meditation was designed to be accessible to the layperson with a minimum of training for nearly instant benefit. Transcendental meditation can have numerous physical benefits as the result of the deep breathing and relaxation exercises that paradoxically bring

Netflix case study Essay Example for Free

Netflix case study Essay Netflix offers online video streaming and DVD rental services for a flat fee to all subscribers. After Reed Hastings, the CEO of Netflix had announced the companys new strategy of separating its online service and DVD rental services into two accounts for its subscribers, the company’s stock fell to $63 per share from $300 per share and lost 805,000 subscribers in three month. Although facing so many challenges, Reed Hastings choose to continue his new strategies, but with a sincerely apologize for the change and a detailed explanation of why they made this decision and what’s in it for current subscribers. Stock price of Netflix close on yesterday was 312.40. Problems and challenges Although it seems that Netflix has recovered from the separation strategy, but there still are some problems and challenges are waiting for the company. First of all, Netflix online streaming branch is facing fierce competition from companies like Amazon instant video, YouTube, iTunes store, and Hulu. Second, On-demand TV offering are now hot area, many big-pay TV operator such as Verizon and Comcast Corp are trying to bring on-demand TV to cable users which will offer fresher content than online streaming companies like Netflix. Third of all, The DVD rental branch called Qwikster are now competing with companies like Amazon and Redbox DVD rental. From what we can see in the future, DVD service may finally run out of business and how to minimize the damage to Netflix is a big problem waiting for a solution. SWOT Strength Netflix is offering a flat fee policy, which is cheaper than Amazon and iTunes users and is easier to retain current users. A very distinctive strength Netflix have is that Netflix is also a producer. In this year’s Emmy Awards, Netflix Incs groundbreaking political thriller House of Cards took home an award for directing. As its name shows in Emmy, Netflix may win not only an award, but many potential users. Many people may position Netflix as a company provides high quality shows than other video distributors. Weakness Although the stock price has gone up this year and everyone now thinks Reed Hastings is the one sees the future, the remaining problem is how to survive with a $7.99 monthly flat fee for subscribers and at the same time spending more than $5 billion for the next five years to purchase TV shows and Movie License. Customers always wants more and pay less. Huge amount of spending force Netflix to attract new users in a rapid speed, but attract new users itself will be another big spending. Although the original drama â€Å"house of cards† generated a big buzz for Netflix, but the cost is considerable. Opportunities New technologies bring opportunities to online streaming video companies. Netflix has mobile app for both Android and ios system and it works well. People want to access to on-demand videos more convenient by using mobile phone and tablets. The trend of globalization gives Netflix the opportunity to grow itself. The fourth quarter of 2012, Netflix gained 3 million new global subscribers. Threat Competition from Amazon, iTunes, Hulu, Google TV, and cable networks may pose threat to the company. BRAD BEALE, Director of digital video content acquisition of Amazon is known for its ability of picking up successful shows and get the license earlier than other companies. Hulu also spend a lot on bringing new contents in. Although Netflix is cheaper, Amazon offers free instant vedio to prime membership and two-day free shipping for its customers. Also, Amazon, Apple and Google now all offer their own devices for video streaming, such as Apple TV, Kindle Fire. Questions Q.1. A strong consumer backlash emerged in response to major changes in Netflix’s business model. What are some of the arguments in favor of Hasting’ decision to split the company? What decisions and options are available to Hastings? Were they good decisions? 2- 3 paragraphs Many believe DVD rental business is fading because of new technologies. People no longer want to wait for the DVD to arrive. Instead they want on-demand video services. Slip the company bring price lower for stream only customers and it is fair for them to pay for cheaper price. Put in account information is easier and benefit is longer. Hastings can choose to change the company back to the old model by listening to customers and close the DVD service a couple years later when the DVD rental industry lost all the business. I think its good decisions because the financial information shows that Reed Hastings made the good decision and wins the game. The revenue grow almost half and subscribers grow even more this year. Works Cited Laporte, N. (2013, July 1). A TALE OF TWO NETFLIX. Fast Comapny , 177, pp. 31-32. Mint. (2013, September 23). Breaking Bad, Modern Family win top Emmy Awards. (H. M. Ltd., Producer) Retrieved Septemner 29, 2013, from Mint: http://search.proquest.com.rlib.pace.edu/docview/1434860801?accountid=13044 Peterson, T. (2013, September 23). 2013 MEDIA MAVENS: BRAD BEALE. Advertising Age , 84 (33), p. 1. Ramachadran, S. (2013, September 20). Cable Fights to Feed Binge TV Viewers; Comcast, Verizon FiOS Vie With Netflix, Amazon for Rights to Show Complete Series. (Dow Jones Company Inc) Retrieved September 30, 2013, from Wall Street Journal: http://search.proquest.com.rlib.pace.edu/docview/1434160601?accountid=13044 View as multi-pages

Internal and External environment analysis for Mcdonalds

Internal and External environment analysis for Mcdonalds McDonalds has been a thriving business since 1955 and 20 of the top 50 corporate staff employees started as a restaurant level employee. In addition, 67,000 McDonalds restaurant managers and assistant managers were promoted from restaurant staff. Fortune Magazine 2005 listed McDonalds as the Best Place to Work for Minorities. McDonalds invests more than $1 billion annually in training its staff, and every year more than 250,000 employees graduate from McDonalds training facility, Hamburger University. The business is ranked number one in Fortune Magazines 2008 list of most admired food service companies. One of the worlds most recognizable logos (the Golden Arches) and spokes character (Ronald McDonald the clown). According to the Packard Childrens Hospitals Center for Healthy Weight children age 3 to 5 were given food in the McDonalds packaging and then given the same food without the packaging, and they preferred the food in the McDonalds packaging every single time. McDonalds is a community oriented, socially responsible company. They run Ronald McDonald House facilities, which provide room and board, food and sibling support at a cost of only $10 a day for families with children needing extensive hospital care. Ronald McDonald Houses are located in more than 259 local communities worldwide, and Ronald McDonald Care Mobile programs offers cost effective medical, dental and education services to children. They also sponsor Olympic athletes. They are a global company operating more than 23,500 restaurants in 109 countries. By being spread out in different regions, this gives them the ability to weather economic fluctuations which are localized by country. They can also operate effectively in an economic downturn due to the social need to seek out comfort foods. They successfully and easily adapt their global restaurants to appeal to the cultural differences. For example, they serve lamb burgers in India and in the Middle East, they provide separate entrances for families and single women. Approximately 85% of McDonalds restaurant businesses world-wide are owned and operated by franchisees. All franchisees are independent, full-time operators and McDonalds was named Entrepreneurs number-one franchise in 1997. They have global locations in all major airports, and cities, along the highways, tourist locations, theme parks and inside Wal-Mart. They have an efficient, assembly line style of food preparation. In addition they have a systemization and duplication of all their food prep processes in every restaurant. McDonalds uses only 100% pure USDA inspected beef, no fillers or additives. Additionally the produce is farm fresh. McDonalds serves 100% farm raised chicken no fillers or additives and only grade-A eggs. McDonalds foods are purchased from only certified and inspected suppliers. McDonalds works closely with ranchers, growers and suppliers to ensure food quality and freshness. McDonalds only serves name brand processed items such as Dannon Yogurt, Kraft Cheese, Nestle Chocolate, Dasani Water, Newmans Own Salad Dressings, Heinz Ketchup, Minute Maid Juice. McDonalds takes food safety very seriously. More than 2000 inspections checks are performed at every stage of the food process. McDonalds are required to run through 72 safety protocols every day to ensure the food is maintained in a clean contaminate free environment. McDonalds was the first restaurant of its type to provide consumers with nutrition information. Nutrition information is printed on all packaging and more recently added to the McDonalds Internet site. McDonalds offers salads, fruit, roasted chicken, bottled water and other low fat and calorie conscious alternatives. It has branded menu items e.g. Big Mac, Chicken McNuggets, which further promote McDonalds. McDonalds Egypt: Has the second largest market share in Egypt with branches exceeding 60. Fastest delivery service provided in Egypt. Nutrition information is printed on all packaging Safety protocols and quality assurance to serve best quality food. More than 92% of suppliers are Egyptian (Halal) Efficient assembly line to serve food as fast as possible with maintaining high quality. Charity works. McDonalds is the first restaurant in Egypt to provide drive through in 7 branches. Has a joint venture with shell petroleum. Sponsors many events and football teams. Cares about the environment by recycling the oil used in cooking for delivery motorcycles. (SWOT) McDonalds Worldwide: High employee turnover in their restaurants leads to more money being spent on training. Their test marketing for pizza failed to yield a substantial product. Leaving them much less able to compete with fast food pizza chains. The companys ability to increase revenue is small due to many competitors to keep prices down. It uses advertising that mostly targets children. Lack of innovative products. McDonalds Egypt: No innovation in products that could serve the culture taste due to consistency in their menu. Prices McDonalds Structure: McDonalds has a functional structure which serve many product lines in the same industry. Its chain of command is as follow: Chief Executive Operations Development Finance Marketing Human Resources McDonalds are structured along functional lines. Their Chief Executive oversees five major areas of activity: Operations (equipment and franchising) Development (property and construction) Finance (supply chain and new product development) Marketing (sales marketing) Human Resources (customer services, personnel, hygiene and safety) Culture: McDonalds is all about corporate culture. From its Hamburger University (where managers and assistant managers are trained) to its vision statement of Quality, Service, Convenience, and Value (QSCV), McDonalds corporate culture is a shared value system that forms the basis of all company decisions. A relatively enduring, interdependent symbolic system of values, beliefs, and assumptions evolving from and imperfectly shared by interacting organizational members that allows them to ascribe common meanings to stimuli encountered in the organizational context; these functions are accomplished through the mediation of implicitly and explicitly rules that act as cultural warrants. McDonalds vision statement creates the values by which are made all managerial and corporate decisions. These guiding values are exhibited in all aspects of business, from social responsibility and diversity to training and policies. McDonalds operates four Hamburger Universities in four countries. McDonalds has and provides the best employees-business relationship via providing an equal opportunity employer. As an equal opportunity employer McDonalds ensures that employees and job applicants are selected, trained, and promoted without discrimination to race, gender, sexual orientation, age or disability. The company promotes their employees based on their relevant skill, talents, and performance. In support of this McDonalds promotes and sustains a working environment, which is free from unlawful discrimination, harassment and bullying. Employees are regarded as members of a team where everyones opinion is valued and respected. The Human Resources department monitors the effectiveness of the discrimination policies at regular intervals and takes corrective action as necessary to ensure that they being complied with Employees who feel that they have been treated unfairly are encouraged to use the remedies outlined in the Companys handbooks. The Ronald McDonald House charity offers thousands of sick children in approximately 48 countries hope and it inspires courage. They say laughter is the best medicine and nothing makes people smile more than a Happy Meal.ourworld-policy-hero At McDonalds we recognize our responsibilities to protect and preserve the environment for future generations to come Our goal is simple, is achieving a continuous environmental improvement across all areas of our business. ourworld-prp btn-show-your-support images (9) Litter McDonalds provides trash cans outside every store all around the world. food-fries Waste Used cooking oil represents 10% of the restaurant total waste, and is recycled into biodiesel, which our delivery bikes runs on. food-saladsplus Packaging For the salads containers McDonalds replaced them with a paper card base; saving nearly 69 tones of plastic purchased by the firm. Energy All our restaurants uses low energy lampsrestaurants-whatson Resources Suppliers: Meat: from Brazil in bulks and then processed in Egypt. Potato: Farm frites Vegetable: Egyptian farms Dairy: Egyptian farms Bread: Egyptian suppliers Assets: 60 restaurants Delivery Motorcycles Office equipment Manufacturing plants Restaurant equipments Skills Knowledge: Employees are trained on the same values and are given the required skills to achieve companys success. (Hamburger University) External environment: (SWOT) Worldwide: In todays health conscious societies the introduction of a healthy hamburger is a great opportunity. They would be the first QSR (Quick Service Restaurant) to have FDA approval on marketing a low fat low calorie hamburger with low calorie combo alternatives. Currently McDonalds and its competition health choice items do not include hamburgers. Provide optional allergen free food items, such as gluten free and peanut free. In 2008 the business directed efforts at the breakfast, chicken, beverage and convenience categories. For example, hot specialist coffees not only secure sales, but also mean that restaurants get increasing numbers of customer visits. In 2009 McDonalds saw the full benefits of a venture into beverages. It can adapt to the needs of the societies and undergo an innovative product line. It can adapt to the needs of the societies and undergo an innovative product line. It can research ways to use green energy and packaging which will work as a part of their promotional effort as well as fulfill their social responsibility. It can create new product offerings, use mobile text messaging to offer services that appeal to consumers. It can upscale some of its restaurant settings at luxurious locations to attract more customers. It can provide optional items that are regarded to be the basis of allergy for some. It can slow down the level of expansion in order to increase the profitability of the organization. McDonalds Egypt: Introduce new products that satisfy the culture needs Reduce expansion to generate more revenue Use new home ordering techniques Care more about green environment (SWOT) Worldwide: The recession negatively impacts the holding position of the firm regarding its revenue streams, even though they are quite diversified. Foreign currency fluctuations are regarded to be a major problem as it uses standard pricing for its food items. More restaurants that are increasing their food offering and declining the price. Health issues regarding the fast food chain. Heavy investments on promotional campaigns which decrease the gaining of market share. Some parents criticize the firms cradle to grave marketing strategy that focuses on kids, who later on take it as a trend to their adulthood. Sued various times for unhealthy food, usually with addictive additives. Emergence of major fast food competitors: Burger King, Starbucks, Wendys, Taco Bell, KFC. The expansion has made the firm vulnerable to the slow economies of the other countries. Swine Flu McDonalds Egypt: Rumors such as an Americanized brand that supports Israel. Egyptians are starting to care more about diet and health Economy recession Swine Flu McDonalds vs. KFC vs. Momen The SWOT analysis of KFC showed that it has the largest market share of the fast food industry and 24 stores more than McDonalds. Its weaknesses turned out to be lack of consistence of standards and moderate rates of dissatisfaction by the customers. For the threats and opportunities of KFC, they are no different from those of McDonalds or any other fast food restaurant in the industry. Similarly, the SWOT analysis of Momen showed that its main strengths are in their diversified menus and reasonably more competitive and affordable prices. Its weaknesses are much more lack of consistency than that of KFC and customers perceive their taste to be less than both McDonalds and KFC as well as any other fast food restaurant in the market. Its opportunities are the incorrect believe of customers that Momen is Egyptian and halal while McDonalds and KFC are not. However, the threats of Momen are that they are only spread over the main areas of the Egyptian market so they do not serve all the customers unlike what McDonalds and KFC do. Natural environment: McDonalds doesnt supply its franchises from the headquarters in fact it treats every franchise as its own operating business that will order its supplies from the suppliers they want taking into consideration the quality assurance this could be based on the country itself or from imported goods. For McDonalds Egypt they order nearly 92% of their supplies from Egyptian producers whom produce the supplies in Egyptian land because Egypt is considered to be a good agriculture region for its good climate and having the Nile River. Potato: Farm frites Vegetable: Egyptian farms Dairy: Egyptian farms Bread: Egyptian suppliers Societal: Political: Taxes before 2005 were 40%, after 2005 and until now it is reduced to 20% this encouraged McDonalds to expand into what it is now 60 Branches and rising. Economical: Inflation has a very huge impact on McDonalds Egypt as prices are increasing and people have low income this leads them to spend money on cheap products, McDonalds has to increase its prices because its supplies are becoming more expensive. The economic crises has also affected McDonalds because people are saving more and spending less and as McDonalds is not considered as a need and people have many other cheap substitutes such as Amo Hosney and Momen, McDonalds sales are reduced. As McDonalds has a high unemployment rate it is not hard to find employees because McDonalds has a training center that trains them and candidates dont need to have special skills or certificates to work at McDonalds. Socio-culture: As McDonalds operate in many different countries it has to take into consideration their beliefs and traditions. It introduces new products besides the standard menu that suits every culture for e.g. in the Middle East MC Arabia and in India Mc Panton. McDonalds also cares about the factors that could offend each culture for e.g. a state in USA considers the red color in McDonalds logo as evil therefore McDonalds has introduced the BLUE color in the logo. Technological: McDonalds uses new technology in cooking and preparing the food to reduce the fats and cholesterol in nutrition. It has also introduced new technology to reduce costs (waste) and increase production efficiency. Task: (Porter 5 Forces) Threat of new entrants: McDonalds was not frightened a single bit when it first noticed that Burger King is going to start up in the Egyptian market for several reasons. First, they were well aware of their position in the market and how customers perceive them. Second, Burger King is not well positioned yet and the customers do not really know anything about it as well as not many customers in Egypt like it. Third, in order for Burger King to catch quickly with McDonalds it needs to open 10 stores every 2 months which is impossible and even if it was possible Burger King would still need a year for it to catch up. McDonalds main concern is for new small entrants such as Amo Hosney who offers low price products with more quantity but the difference comes in quality and not quantity. Rivalry among existing firms: McDonalds does not really see Hardees or consider it a main competitor. Kentucky Fried Chicken and Momen are the main competitors of McDonalds in the fast foods industry or business. KFC has the largest market share of the fast food industry with 84 stores (24 stores more than McDonalds) and Momen has the third largest share of the industry. McDonalds is counting on coming up with creative and appealing ideas to beat the competition which is the main strategy that McDonalds is adopting against competition. Threat of substitutes: Instead of buying McDonalds people can prepare food at home and it will be more healthy and will cost less therefore it is considered to be a threat to McDonalds because people will buy less causing loss in revenue. Power of buyer: McDonalds consumers can influence its prices because there are many competitors and substitutes that consumers can switch to such as Momen and KFC therefore the consumers have the power in purchasing the product of not and can influence it. Power of supplier: McDonalds has the power over suppliers because there are many suppliers available whom wish to work with McDonalds because it is a well recognized organization worldwide. The only problem is that McDonalds needs to follow some quality measurements in providing the food which might not be easily taught to new suppliers.

John Marshall Essay -- American History, Politics

The late 1700s and early 1800s was a critical time period in American history in which our newly independent nation was beginning to lay down the groundwork for how the country would run. During this time, America was in its infancy and its crucial first steps would dictate how the nation would either walk, run, or retreat. John Marshall, the fourth Chief Justice of the Unites States, was a highly important and influential political figure whose decisions forever molded the future of the American judicial system. Like many other great political figures, much of John Marshall’s influence can be attributed to timing; he emerged just as the United States Constitution came into existence. John Marshall was born in Virginia in 1755 to a large family whose father was involved with local politics and whose mother was the cousin of Thomas Jefferson, who was later Marshall’s adversary. After serving as an officer in the American Revolution, Marshall returned home in 1779 to become one of the most prominent lawyers in Virginia. In 1782, he was elected as a delegate to the Virginia assembly and later, took part in the Virginia ratifying convention, in which he staunchly defended the new United States Constitution. Rising in popularity, John Marshall was elected to Congress in 1799, and continuing to remain loyal to the Federalist Party, put his full support behind President John Adams, who appointed him Secretary of State in 1801 (â€Å"John Marshall†). In the presidential election of 1800, which is also known as the â€Å"revolution of 1800†, Thomas Jefferson was elected, marking an end to John Adams’ term and the Federalist’s rule (â€Å"The Election of 1800†). After being defeated by Jefferson, Adams quickly nominated John Marshall as Chief Justice d... ... Court saw some of the most controversial and unprecedented decisions ever to be made in American History. Lord Bryce described his overall influence; â€Å"The Constitution seemed not so much to rise under his hands to full stature, as to be gradually unveiled by him till it stood revealed in the harmonious perfection of the form which its framers had designed† (Smith, â€Å"Maximum Justice†). The Supreme Court under Marshall took on the vital role of interpreting specific clauses of the U.S. Constitution and enumerating the powers it granted for both the state and federal governments. He elevated the status of the judicial branch until it was in an equal position of power as the other two. Above all, John Marshall did everything in his power to achieve his most important objective; to strengthen and protect the â€Å"more perfect union† the United States Constitution created.

My Style? :: Writing Eglish Education Papers

My Style? Students crammed the Superlab on Friday trying to finish the assignment for English Class. The assignment was to write a paper about styles of writing and how the students fit into them. The students must finish the paper and send it by E-mail to the professor by Saturday morning. Short and to the point. That's how I'm supposed to write for my news reporting class. Use short sentences and action verbs. Start with the most important facts, answer any questions raised by the lead, then fill in the details. I've been told that it is very difficult to major in both English and mass communication because they have two very different approaches to writing. So what's the big deal? Well, it's not easy switching back and forth between the styles these classes require, especially since one class immediately follows the other. This is just one problem I've run into concerning style, switching between the two that are expected of me in both classes. Another problem is that there is a specific set of rules to follow when writing for the media. I feel as if I'm writing using someone else's style. I don't normally talk or write using short, to the point sentences, and I definitely don't use the inverted pyramid style. So when I write news stories, can I say that is my own style since how I write is almost dictated? Or is it someone else's that I'm just borrowing? But if that's the case, is there such a thing as my own style? Is everything I say or write dictated by a set of rules, like news writing? Or can I manipulate someone else's stylistic rules to make my own? Is there any way to change things so that I can write how I want to? We discussed in class how decorum dictates how we are supposed to talk or write. I can personally attest to that. When I worked at my dad's welding shop this summer, I noticed that because I was a secretary, I was expected to talk to customers differently than my dad or any of the other workers. I was supposed to sound professional and courteous. "Good afternoon, CAP Enterprise," was the proper way to answer the phone. But when my dad got on the phone, he would talk to the customer or salesperson almost like he talks to his buddies.

Chemical Vision

Final Report Sponsored By ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT BOARD Ministry of Industries & Production Government of Pakistan SEDC Building (STP) 5-A, Constitution Avenue Islamabad Tele: (051) 9205595, 9223734 Fax: (051) 9206161 Prepared By Technology Management International (Pvt) Ltd (TECHMA) 31/11-A, Abu Bakr Block New Garden Town, Lahore Tele: (042) 5881460 Fax-Cum-Tel: (042) 5881718 E-Mail: [email  protected] net. pk 2010 TABLE OF CONTENTS Description Page Nos. Acknowledgement Team of Experts Executive Summary. CHAPTER 1 Scope Of The World’s Chemical Industry 1. 1 Scope of the chemical industry. . 2 Category wise breakdown of the chemical industry. 1. 3 Research and development in the chemical industry. 1. 4 Classification of the chemical industry development of Pakistan – Vision 2030. CHAPTER 2 Potential for the development of secondary chemical industries based on feedstocks derived from primary industries. 2. 1 Feedstocks derived from primary industries for the potential development of secondary chemical industries. †¢ Crude oil based petroleum and petrochemical refineries. †¢ Olefin petrochemical complex. †¢ Aromatic petrochemical complex. 2. 2Natural gas based chemicals. 2. 3 Alternative feedstocks for the production of commodity chemicals. 2. 4. Feedstocks derived from metallurgical plants and polymers, materials technology and metallurgical processes. 2. 5 Other mineral based projects consisting of acid and alkali industries, cement and glass plants based on limestone, gypsum, rock salt, sulphur and silica. 2. 6 Agro based feed stocks. 2. 7 Sources of raw materials and process technologies for chemical industry development in Pakistan. 2. 8 Categorization of secondary chemical industries in Pakistan. CHAPTER 3The present status of the chemical industry in Pakistan. 3. 1 General 3. 2 The structure of Pakistan’s imports and exports. 3. 3 The role of government in industrial development. 3. 4 Limitations of Pakistan’s industrial policies for chemical industry development. i-vii 1 1 1 4 5 1 1 1 3 5 7 10 13 17 17 20 21 1 1 3 8 12 Continued†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Page 1 of 2 CHAPTER 4 4. 1 Modernization of the national innovation system for chemical industry development in Pakistan. †¢ Limitations of Pakistan’s N. I. S. †¢ The scope of Engineering Development Board with additional responsibility for technology development and proposed tructure of Technology Development Board. 4. 2 The role of the national committee in research and technology development. 4. 2. 1 The current status of R&D in Pakistan. 4. 2. 2 National committee for research and technology development. 4. 3 National committee for the development of software and hardware for the commercialization of technologies. 4. 4 National committee for the development of technology policy and investment planning. 4. 5 Human resource development. 4. 6 Integrated plan for the development of a national innovation system. 4. 7 Industrial mast er plan. CHAPTER 5Profiles of Present Secondary Chemical Industries of Pakistan. (Section 1) Caustic soda (Section 2) Soda ash & sodium bicarbonate Section -3) Petrochemicals 1 2 4&5 5 6 7 10 13 15 16 20 1-11 12-19 20-37 CHAPTER – 6 Proposal For The Future Development Of Secondary Industries In Pakistan 1-5 CHAPTER – 7 Industrial Trade Policies 7. 1 Imports, tariff and custom duties. 7. 2 Tariff escalation, description and peaks. 7. 3 Other imports duties/taxes. 7. 4 Competitiveness of exports from Pakistan. CHAPTER 8 Conclusions and Recommendations. Attachments Annexure â€Å"A† References 1 2 3 4 1-5 -3 Page 2 of 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful to Mr Asad Ilahi, Chief Executive Officer of the Engineering Development Board, and his dedicated staff, Mr. M. Farooq Khan, General Manager (Policy); and Mr Yasir Qurban, Project Engineer. They gave their full support in the conception of the project for â€Å"Chemical Industry Development – Vision 2030† and provided invaluable information and data, which were essential for the successful development of the project. My thanks to my colleagues and associated consultants: Mr Muhammad Sadiq Chaudhry, Dr M. Khalid Farooq and Mr Pervaiz A. Khan.They were a source of inspiration and played an active role in discussions for the development of the strategy. Thank you to my daughter, Leila Butt, for editing this report. Dr Waheed M. Butt EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The global chemical industry forms the fabric of the modern world. It converts basic raw materials into more than 70,000 different products, not only for industry, but also for all the consumer goods that people rely on in their daily life. The modern chemical industry is divided into four broad categories, comprising basic chemicals, life sciences, specialty chemicals and consumer products.Its outstanding success is largely due to unceasing scientific and technological breakthroughs and advances, which have led to the development of new p roducts and processes. Chemical industry development in Pakistan has been classified into (i) the primary sector chemical industry and (ii) the secondary sector chemical industry. Primary sector industries are large-scale, capital intensive industries comprising refineries, petrochemicals, natural gas, metallurgical and mineral based projects. They also provide feedstocks for the secondary chemical industry.Secondary industries are based on feedstocks either derived from primary sector industries, or other alternative sources of raw materials. These are less capital intensive and are based on high, medium or less sophisticated technologies. The secondary sector industries form the basis for the proposed â€Å"Chemical Industry Development – Vision 2030†. Primary sector industries which provide feedstocks for the development of secondary sector chemical industries, as well as other alternative sources of feedstocks consist of: (i) Petroleum and petrochemical refineries. These provide petrochemical intermediate chemicals, which form the building blocks for the production of a very large number of secondary chemicals, such as polymers, fibers, pharmaceuticals, drugs, dyes and colours, insecticides, pesticides, resins, paints, pigments, specialty chemicals, and a very large number of consumer and construction materials and products. (ii) Natural gas based chemicals, which consist of methanol and ammonia. These can also be used for the production of a large number of secondary chemicals. (iii) Metallurgical metals and non-metals based secondary chemicals and products.Executive Summary Page i of vii (iv) Alternative renewable feedstocks for the production of secondary chemicals consist of bio-mass, agricultural wastes, oils and fats, molasses and power alcohol. (v) Unconventional natural gas. (vi) Mineral based secondary chemical industries derived from coal, limestone, gypsum, rocksalt, silica sand and sulphur. (vii) Vegetable and herbal plants used in the production of secondary chemicals, such as dyes, medicines, drugs, cosmetics and associated products. The development of secondary chemical industries are divided between projects ased on sophisticated technologies, and those based on medium and less sophisticated technologies. Development of the chemical industry in Pakistan is lagging behind those of other emerging markets. The various factors which have hampered the development of this industry in Pakistan are: (i) An underdeveloped industrial infrastructure. (ii) Reliance on foreign engineering and construction companies for the commercialization of locally developed or imported technologies. (iii) Imports of second-hand highly energy intensive plants based on antiquated technologies. iv) Reliance on the development of resource based, low technology, labour intensive products for export. The objective of â€Å"Chemical Industry Development – Vision 2030† is for: (i) Pakistan to create its own capability and ac hieve self-reliance in project design, engineering and the construction management required for the commercialization of technologies. (ii) To develop capability in the production of medium and high technology based chemicals for export, alongside to the present industrial structure based on low technology resource based products. iii) To provide suitable incentives to entrepreneurs for the development of an exportoriented chemical industry. Executive Summary Page ii of vii The development of the chemical industry in Pakistan started in the 1950s and is based on five year plans, with the first plan covering the 1955-60 period. Economic growth was based on a policy of import substitution, resulting in varying rates of growth of between 3. 1-6. 8% over 1950-70. However, this masks a highly variable performance: the rate of growth slowed in the early 1970s to an annual average of 4. %, but the economy was revitalized in the late 1970s and 1980s, before weakening again. However, in view of the inconsistencies in the development of trade policies geared towards export-led growth, Pakistan has failed to boost exports of its manufactured goods. By comparison, economic growth in Southeast Asian countries from the 1960s onwards, and in India, China and other late comers from the 1980s, was driven by their exportoriented industrialization policies. All these countries introduced market reforms and provided various incentives and subsidies in order to enhance their exports of manufactured goods.In addition, these countries also developed their own technology and engineering infrastructure by virtue of which they achieved self-sufficiency in the utilization and commercialization of their technologies. As a result, they have achieved strong annual average growth rates of between 8-11% over the past three decades. Traditionally, exports from Pakistan have been dominated by goods produced with low technology, resource based feed stocks, such as textiles, cotton, readymade ga rments and leather. These comprise about 60% of total exports.The composition and share in exports of medium and high technology based products, comprising chemicals, petrochemicals and other manufactured products is very small and has fluctuated between 8-10% of total exports from Pakistan. Conversely, Pakistan has a very high dependence of imports of high value-added goods, which are more expensive. Chemicals, drugs, medicines and dyes, as well as capital plant, equipment and machinery, together account for about 40% of total imports with an estimated value of US$16. 3 billion for the year 2007/08.As a result, the trade balance has been continually increasing and stood at US$20. 9 billion in 2007/08. Present trends in Pakistan’s exports of lower technology goods indicate that it is facing increasing competition from India, China and Bangladesh. In addition, global demand for Executive Summary Page iii of vii these products is declining, and the need for higher technology pr oducts is rapidly growing. This situation calls for a concerted effort towards the development of a chemical industry based on medium and highly sophisticated technologies.Pakistan has only developed its basic industries, consisting of refineries, fertilizers, cement, sugar, polyester fibers and some other petrochemical based polymer industries, to fulfill local demand. These industries have been predominantly developed by foreign engineering corporations, which were awarded contracts on turnkey basis. However, Pakistan has failed to assimilate these imported technologies, or use them either for the replication of these plants or in the development of associated chemical projects.This dependence on the production and exports of low-valued added goods has held back Pakistan’s economic performance and revenue-earning potential. By comparison, South and Southeast Asian countries put special emphasis on the development of high technology goods for export. They achieved this throu gh trade liberalization, but their governments’ also introduced industrial policies that focused on the maintenance of macroeconomic stability, the provision of industrial and technology infrastructure, improvements to market institutions and high levels of public investment.These countries established public organizations which supported production activities, but they also relied on private firms for the success of their industrial policies. For example, China, which retains its socialist form of governance, introduced market reforms and advocated the so-called Open Door Policy. It also created two large public sector corporations: China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC), for the production and exploration of oil and gas; and China Petrochemical Corporation (SINOPEC) for the development of its petrochemical industry.China also created Petro-China as a Holding Company, which offered its shares on international markets. The value of this company was estimated at US$100 bi llion in 1999, but has since risen to US$1. 1 trillion in 2008. The salient features of China’s public private partnerships (PPPs) is that the public sector is the major shareholder in the development of its capital intensive industries, whereas the private sector is the majority equity partner in the development of secondary projects. Executive Summary Page iv of viiRapid industrialization in Japan and South Korea was driven by multinational conglomerates—Keiretsus and Chaebols—which created vertical and horizontal diversification of their businesses, with the active support of their respective governments. This pattern, in many cases has been followed by newly industrialized countries (NICs). Pakistan’s industrial infrastructure is limited and it relies primarily on foreign design and engineering companies for the commercialization of local and imported technologies.Therefore, there is immediate need for enhancing and modernizing its national innovation system (NIS). This is the framework by which a country brings about technological change, and consists of research and development (R&D) institutions, the infrastructure for commercialization of technologies, the structure of educational and technical institutions, regulatory agencies, information networks, financial institutions and marketing. Process science and engineering technology (PS&ET) is an important component of a NIS and is the foundation for the development of the chemical industry.It integrates various elements of the processes of commercialization, from R&D to process design, project engineering, construction, operations and marketing management. Taken together, these provide the basis for manufacturing excellence and sustainable competitive advantage. In order to meet the goals of â€Å"Chemical Industry Development – Vision 2030†, it is essential for Pakistan to enhance its PS&ET capability. We propose that the scope of the Engineering Development Boa rd should be enhanced and given the additional responsibility to modernize and strengthen the NIS as the basis for technology development.In order to achieve this objective, three committees should be established under the direction of a Technology Development Board (which will be an enhanced Engineering Development Board): (i) A National Committee for research and technology development, (ii) A National Committee for the development of software and hardware for the commercialization of technologies. Executive Summary Page v of vii (iii) A National Committee for the development of technology policy and investment planning.The role of the National Committee for research and technology development will be to foster linkages between universities, R&D institutions and the chemical industry. Various tasks to be undertaken by this committee will include the formation of sub-committees for different sectors of the chemical industry; identification of problems of each sector; selection of R &D teams from universities, industry and R&D institutes for multidisciplinary research; continual appraisal and economic evaluation of laboratory and pilot scale work; and selection and adoption of technologies for commercialization.The processes of commercialization of local or imported technologies depends on the application of science, engineering, design, instrumentation and control, safety and environment, and many other aspects of capital plant manufacturing, construction, operations and marketing management. In order to develop local capability in various areas of project management, we propose the formation of a National Committee for the development of software and hardware as PPP projects.The functions of this Committee will be to support the development of existing or new engineering companies for various tasks. These include the identification of new projects; the preparation of investment studies on international criteria; the formation of financial packages; the develo pment of software and hardware and its application in design and engineering; the development of engineering specifications for capital plant manufacturing; construction; management; and many other functions such as revamping and modernization of old plants, and facilities for reverse engineering.The successful utilization of various components of technology will depend on the ability of the government to foster PPPs with the involvement of industrial and venture capital institutions and a vibrant entrepreneurial class. We suggest that a National Committee for the development of technology policy and investment Planning should be established for: (i) The provision of suitable incentives to potential investors, in order to accelerate the processes of chemical industry development and the revision of industrial policies on continual basis.Executive Summary Page vi of vii (ii) The development of investment policies and infrastructure for capital formation. In order to facilitate the fo rmation of investment, we recommend that a Holding Company should be established with the participation of the financial sector, international donors, friends of Pakistan, overseas Pakistanis and other investors, who would be invited to subscribe as share holders in this company. Profiles of various sectors of existing chemical industries in Pakistan have been prepared.These consist of World’s present and projected production, World trade, local production in Pakistan, local market size, local demand, imports, future prospects for each sector of industry, SWOT analysis with special references to weaknesses, threats and opportunities as well as present tariff structure on Pakistan. Proposals for the future developments of Secondary Industries in Pakistan have been prepared and suggestions for the development of secondary chemical projects based on locally available as well as imported materials have been made.The proposed industries have been divided into various sectors consi sting of minerals, metallurgical, agro-based alternate sources of energy, oils and fats and petrochemicals based projects. A number of potential projects in each sector have been proposed and it is suggested that EDB initiate the development of feasibility studies on each of these projects for their future implementation. An integrated plan for development of NIS has been proposed and various other equirements consisting of the application of computational technologies, human resource requirements, and the development of coherent industrial policy are also considered necessary. An Industrial Master Plan must be prepared for the implementation of various elements of the NIS, which should identify Pakistan’s capabilities and limitations in various priority sub-sectors of the chemical industry. It should develop policy measures and provide fiscal incentives in order to promote investment in various sectors of chemical industry.The development of a NIS on international standards will provide tens of thousands of job to Pakistan’s highly qualified manpower. Executive Summary Page vii of vii CHAPTER 1 1. 1. 1 SCOPE OF THE WORLD’S CHEMICAL INDUSTRY Scope of the Chemical Industry The chemical industry comprises the companies that produce industrial chemicals. It is central to the modern world economy, as it converts raw materials into more than 70,000 different products. The chemical industry is more diverse than virtually any other industry in the world. Its products are omnipresent.Chemicals are the building blocks for products that meet our most fundamental needs for food, shelter and health, as well as products vital to the high technology world of computing, telecommunications and biotechnology. They are used to make a wide variety of consumer goods, and are also inputs in agriculture, manufacturing, construction and services industries. In particular, chemicals are a keystone of world manufacturing, as they are an integral component of all m anufacturing sub-sectors, including pharmaceuticals, automobiles, textiles, furniture, paint, paper, electronics, construction and appliances.It is difficult to fully enumerate the uses of chemical products and processes, but the following nomenclature gives some indication of the level of diversity: Polymers and plastics–especially polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene terephthalate, polystyrene and polycarbonate–comprise about 80% of the chemical industry’s output worldwide. The chemical industry itself consumes 26% of its own output. Major industrial products include rubber and plastics, textiles, apparel, polymers, pulp and paper, and primary metals.Chemicals are nearly a US$3 trillion global enterprise, with chemical companies in the EU, US and Japan being the world’s largest producers. 1. 2 Category Breakdown of the Chemical Industry The marketing of the chemical business can be divided into a few broad categories, including basic chemicals (about 35-37% of US dollar output), life sciences (30%), specialty chemicals (20-25%) and consumer products (about 10%). ___________________________________________________________________________ Chapter – 1Page 1 of 1 BASIC CHEMICALS or â€Å"commodity chemicals† are a broad chemical category, which include polymers, bulk petrochemicals and intermediates, other derivatives and basic industrials, inorganic chemicals and fertilizers. Polymers–the largest revenue segment, at about 33% of the basic chemicals US dollar value–include all categories of plastics and man-made fibers. The major markets for plastics are packaging, followed by home construction, containers, appliances, pipe, transportation, toys and games.The largest volume polymer product, polyethylene (PE), is used mainly in packaging films and other products, such as milk bottles, containers and pipes. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), another large volume product, is principally used to make pipes for construction markets, as well as siding and, to a much smaller extent, transport and packaging materials. Polypropylene (PP), which is similar in volume to PVC, is used in markets ranging from packaging, appliances and containers, to clothing and carpeting.Polystyrene (PS), another large-volume plastic, is used principally for appliances and packaging, as well as toys and recreation. The leading man-made fibers include polyester, nylon, polypropylene and acrylics, with applications including apparel, home furnishings, and other industrial and consumer use. The principal raw materials for polymers are bulk petrochemicals. Chemicals in the bulk petrochemicals and intermediates category are primarily made from liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), natural gas and naphtha. Their sales volume is close to 30% of total basic chemicals.Typical large-volume products include ethylene, propylene, benzene, toluene, xylenes, methanol, vinyl chloride monomer (VCM), styrene, butadiene and ethylene oxide. These chemicals are the starting materials for most polymers and other organic chemicals, as well as much of the specialty chemicals category. Other derivatives and basic industrials include synthetic rubber, surfactants, dyes and pigments, resins, carbon black, explosives and rubber products. They contribute about 20% to basic chemicals’ external sales. ___________________________________________________________________________ Chapter – 1Page 2 of 2 Inorganic chemicals (about 12% of revenue output) are the oldest of the chemical categories. Products include salt, chlorine, caustic soda, soda ash, acids (such as nitric, phosphoric and sulfuric), titanium dioxide and hydrogen peroxide. Fertilizers are the smallest category (about 6%) and include phosphates, ammonia, urea and potash chemicals. LIFE SCIENCES (about 30% of the dollar output of the chemical business), include differentiated chemical and biological substances, pharmaceuticals, diagnostics, animal health products, vitamins and crop protection chemicals.While much smaller in volume than other chemical sectors, their products tend to have very high prices–over US$10 per pound–with research and development (R&D) spending at 15-25% of sales. Life science products are usually produced to very high specifications and are closely scrutinized by government agencies such as the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Crop protection chemicals, about 10% of this category, include herbicides, insecticides and fungicides. SPECIALTY CHEMICALS are a category of relatively high value-added, rapidly growing, chemicals with diverse end-product markets.They are generally characterized by their innovative aspects–products are sold for what they can do rather than for what chemicals they contain. Products include electronic chemicals, industrial gases, adhesives and sealants, as well as coatings, industrial and institutional cleaning chemicals, and catalysts. Coatings comprise about 15% of specialty chemicals sales, with other products ranging from 10-13%. Specialty Chemicals are sometimes referred to as â€Å"fine chemicals†. CONSUMER PRODUCTS include direct product sales of chemicals such as soaps, detergents, and cosmetics.The chemical industry has shown rapid growth for more than fifty years. The fastest growing areas have been in the manufacture of synthetic organic polymers used as plastics, fibres and elastomers. Historically and currently the chemical industry has been concentrated in three areas of the world: Western Europe, North America and Japan (the so-called Triad). The EU remains the largest producer, followed by the US and Japan. ___________________________________________________________________________ Chapter – 1Page 3 of 3 The traditional dominance of chemical production by the Triad is now being challenged by changes in feedstock availability and price, labour and energy costs, differential rates of economic gro wth and environmental pressures. Instrumental in the changing structure of the global chemical industry has been recent rapid economic growth in China, India, Korea, the Middle East, Southeast Asia, Nigeria, Trinidad, Thailand, Brazil, Venezuela, and Indonesia. 1. 3 Research and Development in the Chemical IndustryThe outstanding success of the global chemical industry is largely due to scientific and technological breakthroughs and advances, facilitating the development of new products and processes. The US chemical industry now spends about US$17. 6 billion annually on R&D. In fact, according to study by the Institute for the Future (IFTF), the chemical industry is one of the eight most research-intensive industries. The scientific and technical research of these industries makes our lives safer, longer, easier and more productive.When one reviews the contributions of the chemical industry to our civilization, it becomes clear that rather than any single individual invention or te chnological breakthrough, it has been the industry’s overall commitment to R&D that has been its most significant legacy. Investment in R&D is the single greatest driver of productivity increases, accounting for half or more of all increases in output per person. R&D is the source of new products that improve our quality of life, and new processes that enable firms to reduce costs and increase competitiveness.As we look to the future, it is apparent that continued investment in technology is necessary for industry to meet the needs and expectations of future generations. Reaching the goals of â€Å"Chemical Industry Development – Vision 2030† will require Pakistan to build its technology infrastructure, consisting of investment in technology development, computer aided design, engineering, plant and equipment manufacturing, construction and marketing management. These areas of development have been grossly neglected in the past and are the major reasons for the present plight of the chemical industry in the country. __________________________________________________________________________ Chapter – 1 Page 4 of 4 The industrial sector drives the global economy, collectively transacting almost US$3 trillion per annum. An industry is a collection of companies that perform similar functions. Industry can be used to refer to all company groups, or as being a set of entities that utilize productive forces to convert a simple input into a processed final product. The size of various industries varies by country, level of development and external demand. . 4 Classification of the Chemical Industry Development of Pakistan – Vision 2030 For the purpose of the â€Å"Chemical Industry Development – Vision 2030†, this industry is divided into: †¢ Primary sector industries and †¢ Secondary sector industries. Primary Sector Industries The Primary sector industry generally involves the conversion of natural resources into primary products. These are large, highly sophisticated, technology-based, capital intensive projects consisting of: (i)Petroleum refining and petrochemical industries for the production of petrochemical intermediates, olefins (ethylene, propylene, butylenes) and BTX (benzene, toluene, xylene), all of which form the basis for the development of monomers, polymers and plastic industries. (ii) Natural gas based projects for the production of ammonia, methanol, fertilizers and associated products. (iii) Mineral based industries consisting of cement, limestone, gypsum, sand and salt. (iv) Smelting and refining of ferrous and non-ferrous metals. They also produce raw materials for Secondary industries. v) Agriculture and Farming Industries These constitute naturally occurring, renewable sources of raw materials, such as cotton, oils and fats, sugar, agricultural wastes (bio-mass) and raw materials for a large number of downstream industries. ________________________________________ ___________________________________ Chapter – 1 Page 5 of 5 Secondary Sector Industries The principal objective of Secondary sector industries is to provide the connective link between products and materials produced by Primary industries, which are of practical use to the national economy.This implies that the Secondary industries rely on the Primary industries for feedstocks and raw materials for use in manufacturing, processing, blending, fabricating plants for petrochemical intermediates, polymers, plastics, steel, non-ferrous metals, minerals, agricultural and miscellaneous products. These industries use medium- to high-sophisticated technology, and range from light to medium categories. THE SECONDARY SECTOR INDUSTRIES WILL FORM THE BASIS FOR â€Å"CHEMICAL INDUSTRY DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN – VISION 2030†. __________________________________________________________________________ Chapter – 1 Page 6 of 6 CHAPTER 2 2. POTENTIAL FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF SE CONDARY CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES BASED ON FEEDSTOCKS DERIVED FROM PRIMARY INDUSTRIES 2. 1 Feedstocks Derived from Primary Industries for the Potential Development of Secondary Chemical Industries Primary chemical industries, which are manufactured through the utilization of various feedstocks, consist of large-scale, highly capital intensive plants, based on sophisticated technologies.These projects also provide raw materials for the development of secondary chemical industries and consist of: †¢ Crude oil based refineries and petrochemical complexes. †¢ Natural gas based chemicals and fertilizer projects. †¢ Alternative renewable feedstocks for the production of commodity chemicals †¢ Metallurgical plants for the production of iron, steel, and non-ferrous metals. †¢ Other mineral projects consisting of acid and alkali industries, and cement and glass plants based on limestone, gypsum, rock salt, sulphur and silica. †¢ Projects based on agro feedstocks.Crude Oil Based Petroleum and Petrochemical Refineries Petroleum refineries are designed to produce a limited number of products, which are primarily used as a source of energy in road, rail and air transport; power plants; steam generation; and heating media in the chemical industry. They do not produce high value-added chemicals unless they are integrated with petrochemical plants–generally designated as Petrochemical Refineries–which are highly energy efficient and produce diversified feedstocks and raw materials for a large number of secondary chemicals.A petrochemical is any chemical compound obtained from petroleum or natural gas, or derived from petroleum or natural gas hydrocarbons and utilized in the production of a large variety of secondary chemicals and products. The definition has been broadened to include the whole range of aliphatic, aromatic and organic ________________________________________________________________________________________ Chapter – 2 Page 1 of 23 chemicals, as well as carbon black and such inorganic materials as sulphur and ammonia. In many instances, a specific chemical included among the etrochemicals may also be obtained from other sources, such as coal, coke or bio-mass. Petrochemical based secondary chemicals include such items as plastics, soaps and detergents, solvents, drugs, fertilizers, pesticides, explosives, synthetic fibers and rubbers, paints, epoxy resins, and flooring and insulating materials. Petrochemicals are found in products as diverse as aspirin, boats, automobiles, aircraft, polyester and acrylic fibers, recording discs and tapes. Natural gas and crude oil are referred to collectively as petroleum. Crude oil consists of the heavier constituents that naturally occur in liquid form.Natural gas refers to the lighter constituents of petroleum that naturally occur in gaseous form, either on its own as free gas, or in association with crude oil. The production of petrochemical based intermedia te chemicals form the feedstocks for secondary industries as part of a two stage process. In the first stage, crude oil is distilled and fractionated to produce a number of products consisting of gasoline, naphthas, and light and heavy gas oils, which are used as a source of energy for road and air transport, and power generation.Simultaneously the off gases, light and heavy naphthas, and gas oils are predominantly used as the starting materials for petrochemical projects. This is illustrated in Fig 2. 1. In the second stage the off gases and naphthas are further processed into two separate operations to produce Petrochemical intermediate chemicals or monomers as follows: ________________________________________________________________________________________ Chapter – 2 Page 2 of 23 Petrochemical Feedstocks Crude Oil To Petroleum Refinery Atmospheric Distillation Methane &Off Gases Gasoline And Motor Spirit Light and Heavy Naphtha Light and Heavy Gas Oil Residue Petrochemica l Feedstock Off Gases/Naphtha/Gas Oil Catalyst Cracking Aromatics Steam Cracking Olefins Fig 2. 1 Olefin Petrochemical Complex Refinery off gases, naphthas or gas oils are reformed at high temperatures in the presence of steam to produce monomers (ethylene, propylene and butylenes). These are gases at ordinary temperatures and pressures and can only be transported at high pressures and low temperatures as liquids under refrigerated condition.These are preferably processed further at site to produce secondary petrochemical products or polymerized into polymers, such as polyethylene, polyvinylchloride, polystyrene, ethylene glycol and many other secondary chemicals as illustrated in Fig 2. 2 and 2. 3. ________________________________________________________________________________________ Chapter – 2 Page 3 of 23 STEAM CRACKING OF STEAM NAPHTHA / GAS OIL NAPHTHA / ASSOCIATED GAS / GAS OIL STEAM Ethylene REACTOR Steam to Feed ratio 0. 25 to 0. 9 Temperatures 820 to 840oC Propyle ne Butylenes Fig 2. 2 OLEFINS AND PETROCHEMICAL INTERMEDIATES BASED SECONDARYCHEMICAL INDUSTRIES STAGE I THERMAL CRACKING OF NAPHTHA FOR THE PRODUCTION OF PRIMARY CHEMICALS (HIGHLY SOPHISTICATED, CAPITAL INTENSIVE PROCESS) ETHYLENE PROPYLENE BUTYLENES POLYETHYLENES LDPE,HDPE POLYPROPYLENE POLY VINYL CHLORIDE POLYSTYRENE SBR ETHYLENE GLYCOL POLY VINYL ACETATE STAGE II POLYMERIZATION OF PRIMARY CHEMICALS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF SECONDARY CHEMICALS AND POLYMERS. (MEDIUM TECHNOLOGY BASED PROCESSES). PLASTICS FILMS CONTAINERS PIPES,CABLES, BAGS SYNTHETIC RUBBER & LEATHER PRODUCTS TYRES TOYS ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT RADIO, TV, AIR CONDITIONERS, REFRIGERATORS FURNITURE, TABLEWARE FORWARD CREATION BACKWARD INTEGRATIONASSOCIATED GASES OR NAPHTHA STAGE III FABRICATION OF SECONDARY CHEMICALS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF CONSUMER PRODUCTS. (LOW/MEDIUM TECHNOLOGY BASED PRODUCTS) Fig 2. 3 ________________________________________________________________________________________ Chapter – 2 Page 4 of 23 O ther Olefins Based SecondaryChemicals Naphtha Steam Cracker (Olefins) Ethylene & Derivatives Ethylene EDC Ethylene Glycol Ethylene Oxide HDPE LDPE LLDPE EPDM Ethanol Alpha Olefins Vinyl Acetate Ethyl Chloride / Ethyl Benzene Propylene & Derivates Propylene Acrylonitrile Cumene Polypropylene Acrylic Acid Butanol 2-Ethyl Hexanol Iso-Propanol NoneneDodecene Propylene Oxide Acetone Acrylic Fiber Butadiene & Derivatives Butadiene ABS Adiponitrile /HMDA Nitrile Rubber Poly-Butadiene Poly chloroprene SB Latex SB Rubber Fig- 2. 3(a) Aromatic Petrochemical Complex Naphtha and gas oil is also catalytically reformed at high temperatures in the presence of catalysts to yield aromatic intermediate chemicals, such as benzene, toluene and xylenes (Fig 2. 4). These are liquids at ordinary temperatures and pressures and can be easily transported to desired locations where they are used as raw materials in the production of a variety of secondary chemical products as shown in Fig. . 5. ______________ __________________________________________________________________________ Chapter – 2 Page 5 of 23 CATALYTIC REFORMING OF NAPHTHA CATALYTIC (AROMATIZATION REACTION) NAPHTHA / ASSOCIATED GAS / GAS OIL Benzene CATALYTIC REACTOR STEAM Toluene Xylenes Fig-2. 4 ` Aromatics Based Secondary Chemicals Naphtha Catalytic Reformer (Aromatics) Toluene & Derivatives Benzene TDI Caprolactam Benzoic Acid TNT Xylenes & Derivates Orthoxylene Paraxylene Metaxylene DMT TPA Bottle Resin Polyester Fiber Fiber Chip Film Resin Phthalic Anhydride PET Benzene & Derivatives Benzene ) Cumene ) Phenol ) Cyclo Hexane )Ethyl Benzene ) Adiplc Acid ) Alkyl Benzene ) Aniline ) Alkyl Phenol ) Chloro Benzene ) Maleic Anhydride ) Nylon Fiber/Resin ) Production of Secondary Chemicals Medium / High Technology Chemicals and Products Production of Primary/Intermediate Chemicals (Highly Sophisticated Capital Intensive) Fig 2. 5 ________________________________________________________________________________________ Chapter – 2 Page 6 of 23 2. 2 Natural Gas Based Chemicals Natural gas is a very valuable resource, not only for use as energy, but also for the production of chemicals. It has been used commercially as a fuel for hundreds of years.The production, processing and distribution of natural gas has become an important segment of the world economy and is a major factor in the production of chemicals in global markets. The composition of natural gas depends on its source. It predominantly consists of methane, but in many cases contains higher hydrocarbons such as ethane and propane. Natural gas processing plants are designed to produce certain valuable products over and above those needed to make the gas marketable. Plants are also designed to recover elemental sulphur which is the starting raw material for the production of many secondary chemicals.Natural gas has created multifarious opportunities and challenges as it is now utilized in the production of fertilizers and petrochemi cals, in addition to its earlier use as a source of energy. This is illustrated in Fig 2. 6. ________________________________________________________________________________________ Chapter – 2 Page 7 of 23 Household Gas Fig -2. 6 ________________________________________________________________________________________ Chapter – 2 Page 8 of 23 FIG-2. 7 ________________________________________________________________________________________ Chapter – 2 Page 9 of 23 2. 3Alternative Feedstocks for the Production of Commodity Chemicals The uncertainties about the peaking of available reserves of fossil fuels, and rising prices of petroleum and natural gas, have spurred the chemical industry to examine alternative feedstocks for the production of commodity chemicals. Over the last two decades alternatives to conventional petroleum and natural gas feedstocks have been developed. These feedstocks include coal based gasification and liquefaction processes; and renewable resources such as bio-mass, stranded natural gas from unconventional reserves, heavy oil from Tar sands or oil shale.These sources of alternative feedstocks are in the process of development for highest volume production of commodity chemicals in Europe and the US. The technology for their utilization is in the process of development, in order to make these processes more efficient and economically compatible with petroleum based technologies. The status of various available feedstocks and the technological development for their exploitation for the production of secondary chemicals is as follows: Coal Substantial world coal reserves make it an attractive alternative to natural gas and petroleum.The technologies for large scale processing of coal are at present available in South Africa and China. However, a major concern about the utilization of these technologies is the variability in feedstock composition and the presence of impurities which poison the catalysts used in the proce ssing of coal. Coal Gasification Commodity chemicals can be produced through the gasification of coal. Because of the large domestic reserves of coal in Pakistan, this feedstock option needs to be exploited. Coal gasification for application, including the production of chemical feedstocks, is already widely practiced worldwide.These plants generate feedstocks for chemical production, closely followed by the Fischer Tropsch process for the production of organic chemicals. ________________________________________________________________________________________ Chapter – 2 Page 10 of 23 The gasification process starts with the production of synthesis gas in a gasifier, followed by the production of a mixture of carbon oxides and hydrogen. Ammonia, methanol, alcohols and aldehydes are produced by Oxo Synthesis. The Fisher Tropsch process is used to produce a variety of secondary chemicals.Different coal types (lignite, bituminous, sub-bituminous) affect the efficiencies and econ omies of the gasification process, since gasification efficiencies are lower for sub-bituminous coals due to higher moisture and ash content. However, since essentially any organic material can be gasified, existing gasifier designs can be adopted to use different types of coal as gasifier feed. Coal Liquefaction Coal can also be liquefied directly, without going through a Syngas step. This process is called the â€Å"Coal to Liquid† or CTL process and is well proven.Liquefaction uses liquid distillation and hydrogenation, where hydrogen is added to coal and water slurry. The slurry increases the Hydrogen/Carbon (H/C) ratio to a crude oil level and removes impurities such as sulphur. Coal Liquefaction technology is of particular interest for the utilization of Thar Coal, which has a high moisture content. A full scale production facility is being built in China for the direct liquefaction of coal into transportation fuels to produce 50,000 bbl/day of fuel oil. A similar proje ct could be developed for Thar Coal with the participation of Chinese Process Licensors. Bio-RefineryA major thrust towards the development of renewable feedstocks as a resource for energy and secondary chemicals is by a process called bio-refining. Bio-refining feedstocks consist of crops residues; waste plants or animal material and recycled fibers; municipal sewage sludge; agricultural and forest residues; household waste; agro-feed effluents; and residues of paper and wood working industry. These plants absorb solar energy from the sun through photosynthesis, and the energy stored within it is recovered by bio-refining processes. ________________________________________________________________________________________Chapter – 2 Page 11 of 23 The bio-refining concept generally involves feeding bio-feedstocks into steam or catalyst crackers to produce chemicals. Some technologies are in the process of development for the processing of carbohydrates, oils, lignin and fuels. In addition to their utilization for energy production, some bio based chemicals that have potential for large scale manufacture include carboxylic acids and glycols. Other areas of development include fermentation of sugars, decomposition of cellulose, high temperature pyrolysis, and bio-refining of wood and waste materials.However widespread use of feedstocks will require sustained research and development(R&D) in a variety of fields such as plant science, microbiology, genomics and catalysis. In view of the impurities, variability of feedstock composition, distributed supply, scalability and pathways for the breakdown of cellulose, the development of process technology will have to be undertaken and / or adapted to local conditions by each country, in order to exploit the utilization of bio-mass feedstocks for economic advantage. Unconventional Natural GasMethane from anaerobic fermentation can be generated from animal manure and sewage treatment, as well as from landfills. The p otential for anaerobic fermentation as a source for useable methane, rather than a source of pollution, will require development work leading to improvements in process control, operating efficiencies and rate of digestion, targeting small scale technologies. Renewable energy sources are indigenous and can, therefore, contribute to reducing dependence on energy imports, such as crude oil, resulting in increasing security of supply as well as resources for the production of commodity chemicals.Developments in renewable energy resources can actively contribute to job creation, predominantly in small- and medium-sized industries which are so central to economic performance. The deployment of renewable resources can be a key feature in regional development, with the aim of achieving greater social and economic cohesion, largely for environmental reasons. ________________________________________________________________________________________ Chapter – 2 Page 12 of 23 2. 4. Feedst ocks Derived from Metallurgical Plants and Polymers, Materials Technology and Metallurgical ProcessesMaterials technology is one of the many areas targeted by the chemical industry. Materials play a critical role in the economic development and growth of chemical process industries. New materials technology is an essential part of the industry’s strategy for achieving its vision. Materials contribute a large amount to industry revenue, and represent a high growth potential for industry. Ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgical processes consisting of iron, steel, copper, aluminium, magnesium and associated alloys have been used traditionally as feedstocks for the development of secondary chemical industries.Tremendous advances in the twentieth century in the development of new synthetic materials have also fueled the growth of the chemical industry. Replacement of traditional materials with synthetic polymers and composite materials has resulted in products with lower weight, be tter energy efficiency, higher performance and durability, and increased design and manufacturing flexibility. Metallurgical Industry The traditional iron, steel and non-ferrous metallurgical industries produce valuable primary products which are important starting materials for the production of secondary chemical products.They are used by almost every manufacturing industry for the fabrication of capital plants and equipment; the manufacture of automobiles, railways, agricultural and construction equipment; and components and spare parts for operating plants in the chemical and allied industries. The iron and steel industry is classified into three important primary products according to the order of processing from iron ore to the finished products. The iron ore is calcined and mixed with limestone and coke and introduced into a Blast furnace. The preheated air is fed to the bottom of the furnace. The ore is reduced to iron to produce Pig iron. ___________________________________ ____________________________________________________ Chapter – 2 Page 13 of 23 Pig iron is refined by different processes to produce iron castings or billets, rolled wrought iron and rolled/forged steel by three different processes as illustrated in Fig 2. 8. Fig-2. 8 The primary products of the iron and steel industry, which consist of iron castings, rolled wrought iron, and rolled and forged steel, are the feedstock for a very large number of downstream secondary industries. ________________________________________________________________________________________Chapter – 2 Page 14 of 23 Non-Ferrous Metals Non-ferrous metals are produced through two basic operations. In the first operation, the ores are subjected to metallurgical processes to produce basic metals consisting of large blocs or bars. In the second operation, the metal is smelted and refined. The secondary smelting and refining of nonferrous metals lead to the production of aluminium, copper, lead, nickel , silver, gold, tin and zinc. These metals are used in wide variety of secondary chemical manufacturing industries, such as ammunition, beverage cans, coins, automobiles and household appliances.Copper possesses superior electrical conductivity, and is a strong, durable metal used in a variety of structural applications, as well as for power, lighting and communication transmissions. Domestically, the major markets for copper are construction, electronics, and industrial machinery and equipment. Aluminium, the most widely used nonferrous metal, possesses several positive attributes, such as a light weight, corrosion resistance, and high electrical and thermal conductivity, which makes the metal suitable for a variety of applications.Container and packaging manufacturers use aluminium, while other major enduse products include the transportation sector, the building and construction sector, and the electrical sector. Lead is primarily used for the manufacture of storage batteries, wh ich in turn are incorporated into automobile ignition starters, un-interruptible power supplies for computer systems, and standby power supplies for emergency lighting systems and telephones. Other market sectors that purchase lead include paint and glass manufacturers, and building products manufacturers.Zinc is primarily used to galvanize products found in the automobile, steel and construction industries, but a greater percentage of secondary zinc is used to produce brass and bronze, as well as assorted chemicals. Additional applications include the blending of zinc-based die-cast and brass alloys. ________________________________________________________________________________________ Chapter – 2 Page 15 of 23 Composite Materials Over the past few years, advances in the production of composite materials, including mixtures of polymers, fibers, metals and ceramics, have extended the range, performance and applications of these materials.These are made up of individual mate rials referred to as constituent materials. There are two categories of constituent materials designated as matrix and reinforcement. The matrix surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix properties. A synergism produces material properties unavailable from the individual constituent materials.A wide variety of matrix and strengthening materials allows the designer of the product or structure to choose any optimum combination. Most commercially produced composites use a polymer matrix material often called a resin solution. There are many different polymers available depending upon the starting ingredients. The most common are known as polyesters, vinyl ester, epoxy, phenol, poly amides, amongst others. The reinforcement materials are often fibers and fiber glass, but also commonly ground materials.The average composition in a product cont ains 60% resin and 40% fiber. Various process technologies consisting of vacuum moulding, pressure moulding, autoclave moulding and resin transfer moulding are employed in order to give the required properties and strength to the relevant final product. Composite materials have gained popularity in high performance products that need to be lightweight, yet strong enough to take harsh loading conditions. Examples of these include aerospace components, boat and scull hulls, and car bodies.The new Boeing 787 aircraft, including its wings and fuselage, is composed largely of composite materials. ________________________________________________________________________________________ Chapter – 2 Page 16 of 23 2. 5 Other Mineral Based Projects Consisting of Acid and Alkali Industries, Cement and Glass Plants Based on Limestone, Gypsum, Rock Salt, Sulphur and Silica The mineral potential of Pakistan, although considered excellent, is not adequately exploited as its contribution to G NP at present stands at only 2. 4%.The main sources of locally available feedstocks for the production of the acid and alkali industry (soda ash, sodium bicarbonate, caustic soda, chlorine), sulphur and other inorganic acids, glass and cement, consist of rocksalt, sulphur, limestone, gypsum and silica sand. The manufactured products are predominantly marketed for local use, although there are some exports to Afghanistan and the Central Asian states. In view of the long history of development of industries in this sector, the process technologies are well-known locally.However, the design, engineering and procurement of critical plant and equipment are predominantly carried out by foreign engineering companies. 2. 6. Agro Based Feedstocks Cotton and Other Natural Fibers Agriculture is the largest sector of the economy and is the source of livelihood of almost 45% of the total employed labour force in the country. Cotton is the most important non-food crop and feedstock for the produc tion of natural fiber for the manufacture of textile products. Cotton fiber is also blended with polyester and viscose fibers.The textile and clothing industry has been the main driver of Pakistani exports for the last sixty years, in terms of both foreign currency earnings and job creation. The textile industry flourished under official patronage, but lost its advantages in the post quota regime. Its share in exports has declined from 66% in 2005 to 53. 7% in the current 2008-09 financial year. The textile industry is based on relatively low to medium technology, but in spite of this Pakistan has spent US$7. 5 billion on the import of textile machinery over the past ten years (1999-2009).Pakistan did not make any effort to adopt ________________________________________________________________________________________ Chapter – 2 Page 17 of 23 imported technologies for the manufacture of textile machinery by reverse engineering. In view of these shortcomings, the textile indus try has continuously suffered productivity losses due to machinery breakdowns and its inability to cope with operational problems. Pakistan is now facing competition from China, India and Bangladesh, in view of their better quality products, higher productivity and other economic advantages.Sugarcane, Molasses, Power Alcohol and Associated Industries Sugarcane is an important cash crop and is a valuable feedstock for the production of sugar and other downstream industries, such as industrial alcohol, chip board and paper. Molasses is a by product of the sugar industry and is the starting raw material for the production of industrial alcohol, which is used as a source of energy for automobiles, as well as the production of organic chemicals, such as aldehydes, acetone, acetic acid, acetic anhydride, isophoron, citric acid, glycerol, yeast and many other derivatives for pharmaceutical and plastic industries.Fruit and Vegetables The various varieties of fruit produced in Pakistan consi st of citrus, mango, apples, banana, apricot, guava, grapes and tomatoes. Annual production is estimated at 5. 6 million tons per year. The fruit industry is very diversified and consist of juices, soups and sauces, baby food, bakery products, confectionary and tomato products. The technology for the processing of fruit is becoming more sophisticated because of the high demand for quality products. The industry is required to produce food products both economically and profitably, and this depends upon efficient processes.At the same time, these processes must handle the material in such a way that the final product is attractive to the consumer. The fruit industry and its downstream products have considerable export potential. ________________________________________________________________________________________ Chapter – 2 Page 18 of 23 Natural Dyes Vegetable dyes are eco-friendly and their use is increasing, especially for dyeing wool, carpets, silk and cotton. The commo n sources of vegetable dyes are parts of plants, such as leaves, flowers, fruit, seeds, barks, and the roots of dye yielding plants.The cultivation of certain trees also yield dye material. Therefore, the utilization of dye yielding plants and trees will boost the agro-based industry especially in rural areas, leading to rural development and employment creation. Pakistan imports vegetable dyes from India despite the fact that the raw materials for their production are available in Pakistan. Dyes and pigments constitute the largest segment of the industry, with the world’s present value estimated at about US$16 billion per year. Herbal Medicines and Associated productsThe Indian / Pakistani system of medicines–generally known as the Ayurvedic System of Medicine–is considered a perfect science of life which has evolved from wisdom, experience and logic. Based on scientific observations, it has its origin in the Vedas–the oldest recorded wisdom circa 6000 B C. Ayurvedic herbal medicines are considered ideal treatments, as they cure the diseases without causing any side effects. Herbal medicines and products now include medicines, health supplements, herbal beauty and toiletry products.Major developments in herbal medicines and beauty products are now taking place in China, South Korea, Canada and the US, in addition to India. It is estimated that the global market for herbal products now stands at US$62 billion per annum. Pakistan has a vast variety of flora and fauna especially in the northern areas, Azad Kashmir and the foothills of the Himalayas, which need to be explored for beneficial exploitation of these resources. ________________________________________________________________________________________Chapter – 2 Page 19 of 23 India has established a Technology Development Board which provides financial assistance to R&D establishments concerned with the development and commercialization of indigenous technology for herba l products for wider domestic applications. There is considerable potential for the development of this sector and collaboration with well known companies such as Hamdard and Qarshi can be sought for joint partnerships for the development of herbal projects. Oils and Fats IndustryConventional oils derived from cotton seed, rapeseed and corn are now processed and utilized for the production of bio-fuels in the US and other countries. An alternative source of vegetable oil called Jetropha is now widely cultivated in South and Southeast Asia, especially in Japan, Thailand, China and India. It is a woody and hardy plant, and grows to a height of 3-8 meters. It grows quickly even in poor soils and is not affected by drought and disease. The Macro engineering society of Pakistan, in collaboration with Big Bird (Pvt. ) Ltd. as initiated a project for the plantation of Jatropha in Layyah, West Punjab. The Jetropha oil seed contains about 40% of vegetable fat/oil and some toxic materials, wh ich makes it inedible for human and livestock consumption. The process technology for the conversion of Jetropha oil into bio-fuels is well proven and can be adopted in Pakistan. 2. 7 Sources of Raw Materials and Process Technologies for Chemical Industry Development in Pakistan The sector wise classification of chemical industry in Pakistan is as follows: PRIMARY INDUSTRIES SOURCES OF RAW MATERIAL ) Petroleum Refineries ii) Fertilizers Imported Crude Oil Local Natural Gas, iii) iv) v) vi) Local Materials, Limestone, Clay Imported/Local Ore Locally available ore Local Agricultural Raw Material Cement Iron & Steel Copper Textiles ________________________________________________________